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Foundations
for Christianity:
202
Foundations of Our Theology
and Hermeneutics
Early
Church Biographies and Information
"Barnabas, Saint - Christian apostle. He was a Cypriot
and a relative of St. Mark; his forename was Joseph. Several
passages in the New Testament relate that Barnabas was a teacher
and prophet in the church at Antioch and the companion of
St. Paul on his first missionary journey. He is said to have
been martyred in Cyprus. One of the oldest noncanonical Christian
writings (about 2d cent. A.D.) is a letter attributed to Barnabas."
- The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2001.
"Polycarp, Saint - c.A.D. 70-A.D. 156?, Greek bishop
of Smyrna, Father of the Church. He was a disciple
of St. John, who appointed him bishop. Thus he linked
the apostles and such 2d-century Christian expositors as St.
Irenaeus. St. Polycarp was a close friend of St. Ignatius
of Antioch. As a very old man, Polycarp went to Rome to
discuss the problem of dating Easter. He died a martyr in
Smyrna. His one surviving work, the Epistle to the Philippians,
has been the subject of controversy. Some scholars have maintained
that the letter is really two-one written c.115, enclosing
St. Ignatius' epistles, and the other written c.135 to warn
the Philippians against the teachings of Marcion. He was
in his time the mainstay of Christianity in Asia Minor."
- The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2001.
"Ignatius of Antioch, Saint - d. c.107, bishop of Antioch
and Christian martyr, called Theophorus [Gr.,= God-bearer].
He was probably a convert and a disciple of St. John the
Evangelist. On his way to Rome to be martyred by the wild
beasts of the amphitheater, he wrote the important letters
to the churches in Rome and in Asia Minor, and to St. Polycarp.
The seven epistles are an invaluable testimony to the beliefs
and internal organization of the early Christians. St.
Ignatius is the first writer to stress the virgin birth. He
firmly denounced Docetism and viewed the mystery of the Trinity
as an assumed doctrine of faith. The only guarantee against
heresy, he taught, is the church united under a bishop. St.
Ignatius is the first in Christian literature to use the word
Catholic." - The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
2001.
"Irenaeus, Saint - c.125-c.202, Greek theologian,
bishop of Lyons, and Father of the Church. Born in
Asia Minor, he was a disciple of St. Polycarp. Irenaeus
went to Rome to plead for leniency toward the Montanists (see
Montanism) and for those Eastern Christians who were threatened
with excommunication because they did not observe the Roman
date for Easter. He remained in the West and died in Gaul.
He was the earliest Father of the Church to systematize Christian
doctrine and is cited frequently by later theologians. Only
two of his works survive-neither in the original Greek.
Against Heresies establishes Christian doctrine against
the Gnostics and incidentally supplies much information on
Gnosticism. The Epideixix is a concise exposition of
Christian doctrine (tr. by J. P. Smith Proof of the Apostolic
Preaching, 1952)." - The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. 2001.
"Papias - fl. A.D. 130, early Christian theologian
said to have been bishop of Hieropolis and a friend of
St. Polycarp. Papias' five-volume work, Oracles; or,
Explanations of the Sayings of the Lord, survives only
in fragments quoted by Eusebius of Caesarea and St. Irenaeus.
These are valuable sources for the history of the church."
- The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2001.
"Justin Martyr, Saint - c.A.D. 100-c.A.D. 165,
Christian apologist, called also Justin the Philosopher. Born
in Samaria of pagan parents, he studied philosophy, and after
his conversion in Ephesus to Christianity at about the age
of 38, he went from place to place trying to convert men
of learning by philosophical argument. He opened a school
of Christian philosophy at Rome, where he and some disciples
were finally martyred under Marcus Aurelius. Of his writings
(in Greek), only two undisputed works remain, the Apology
(with an appendix called the Second Apology) and the Dialogue.
The Apology is a learned defense of Christians against charges
of atheism and sedition in the Roman state; it contains an
exposition of Christian ethics and invaluable records of the
customs and practices of 2d-century Christianity. The
Dialogue sets forth in the form of an argument with
Trypho (or Tryphon) the Jew a philosophic defense of Christian
beliefs, particularly with reference to Jewish writings; it
has references to the Gospels that have been of much interest
to students of the Bible." - The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. 2001.
"Tertullian - (Quintus Septimus Florens Tertullianus)
c.160-c.230, Roman theologian and Christian apologist,
b. Carthage. He was the son of a centurion and was well
educated, especially in law. Converted to Christianity
c.197, he became the most formidable defender of the faith
in his day. His Latin is vigorous and effective and reflects
his juridical training. Sentences of his that have become
proverbial are "The blood of martyrs is the seed of the church,"
and "It is certain because it is impossible" (often quoted
incorrectly as "I believe it because it is impossible"). Some
of Tertullian's opinions differed from the main stream of
Christian thought, particularly his more rigorous view of
sin and its forgiveness. After long defending the Montanists
(see Montanism), he left the church (213) to join them; he
later established his own sect, known as Tertullianists. Tertullian's
most important writings are Apologeticus, Ad Nationes,
and De Praescriptione." - The Columbia Encyclopedia,
Sixth Edition. 2001.
Other Important Figures and Writings
"Patristic literature - Christian writings of the
first few centuries. They are chiefly in Greek and Latin;
there is analogous writing in Syriac and in Armenian. The
first period of patristic literature (1st-2d cent.) includes
the works of St. Clement I, St. Ignatius of Antioch, St. Polycarp,
and Papias, the writing known as the Shepherd of Hermas (see
Hermas, Shepherd of), the Didache, and the first Christian
Pseudepigrapha. The writers of the 3d cent., often called
the ante-Nicene Fathers, are principally St. Justin Martyr,
Clement of Alexandria, St. Irenaeus, Origen, Tertullian, and
St. Cyprian. The last two of these are the earliest Fathers
to write in Latin. As Christianity established itself, the
interest shifted from apologetics to the new theological questions
and to sermons and exegesis of Scripture. In the 4th and
5th cent. the number of writers increased greatly. The chief
writers in Greek were Eusebius of Caesarea, St. Gregory Nazianzen,
St. Gregory of Nyssa, St. Basil the Great, St. John Chrysostom,
St. Cyril (of Jerusalem), St. Cyril (of Alexandria), and St.
Athanasius. Among the Latin Fathers were St. Hilary of Poitiers,
St. Ambrose, St. Augustine, St. Jerome (who set a standard
for later Latin in the Vulgate), Cassian, Salvian, St. Hilary
of Arles, St. Caesarius of Arles, and St. Gregory of Tours.
The list in the West is closed conventionally with St. Gregory
I, although St. Bernard of Clairvaux is often called the last
of the Fathers. The canon of Greek Fathers is closed with
St. John of Damascus. There is a monumental collection of
the Fathers (to Innocent III in the West and to the fall of
Constantinople in the East) by Jacques Paul Migne; the Greek
texts are accompanied by Latin translations. There are several
collections of the Fathers in English, including new editions
recently undertaken, and innumerable individual translations."
- The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2001.
"Didache - early Christian work written in Greek,
called also The Teaching of the Twelve Apostles. Dates
for its composition suggested by scholars have ranged from
A.D. 50 to A.D. 150. Discovered in 1875 by Bryennios,
Greek Orthodox metropolitan of Nicomedia, it is an invaluable
primary source for the primitive church. The first part is
a collection of moral precepts, perhaps based on rabbinical
teachings (there are many quotations from the Old Testament);
the second portion gives directions for baptism and the Eucharist;
the third contains directions for bishops and deacons. The
Didache may be of composite authorship. A short work,
it has been published in English translation in collections
of patristic literature." - The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. 2001.
"Hermas, Shepherd of - Christian apocalyptic work,
composed in Rome c.A.D. 139-A.D. 155. It is a collection of
revelations given to Hermas, a devout Christian, by an angel
(Shepherd) and is divided into three sections: Visions,
Mandates, and Similitudes. The teachings are concerned mostly
with matters of penance, morals, and the condition of the
church; they were highly regarded by early Christians. The
book is extant in fragments of the original Greek and in complete
Latin and Ethiopic texts. It has been published in English
translation in collections of patristic literature." - The
Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2001.
"Athanasius, Saint - c.297-373, patriarch of Alexandria
(328-73), Doctor of the Church, great champion of orthodoxy
during the Arian crisis of the 4th cent. (see Arianism).
In his youth, as secretary to Bishop Alexander, he took
part in the christological debate against Arius at the Council
of Nicaea (see Nicaea, First Council of), and thereafter
became chief protagonist for Nicene orthodoxy in the long
struggle for its acceptance in the East. He defended the
homoousion formula that states that Jesus is of the
same substance as the Father, against the various Arian parties
who held that Jesus was not identical in substance with the
Father. Made bishop of Alexandria upon the death of his superior,
he faced a conspiracy led by Eusebius of Nicomedia to return
the condemned Arius to Egypt. When Athanasius refused to yield,
a pro-Arian council held at Tyre (335) found him guilty
of sacrilege, the practice of magic, dishonest grain dealings,
and even murder. Athanasius appealed to Constantine who
demanded a retrial, then unaccountably ordered Athanasius
into exile-the first of five." - The Columbia Encyclopedia,
Sixth Edition. 2001.
"Sabellius - fl. 215, Christian priest and theologian,
b. probably Libya or Egypt. He went to Rome, became the
leader of those who accepted the doctrine of modalistic monarchianism,
and was excommunicated by Pope St. Calixtus I in 220.
Opposing the orthodox teaching of "essential Trinity,"
Sabellius advanced the doctrine of the "economic Trinity."
God, he held, was one indivisible substance, but with three
fundamental activities, or modes, appearing successively as
the Father (the creator and lawgiver), as the Son (the redeemer),
and as the Holy Spirit (the maker of life and the divine presence
within men). The term Sabellianism later was used to include
all sorts of speculative ideas that had become attached to
the original ideas of Sabellius and his followers. In the
East, all monarchians came to be labeled Sabellians." - The
Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2001.
"Constantine I, Roman emperor - or Constantine the
Great, 288?-337, Roman emperor, b. Naissus (present-day
Ni, Serbia and Montenegro). He was the son of Constantius
I and Helena and was named in full Flavius Valerius Constantinus…When
Diocletian and Maximian resigned in 305, Constantius and Galerius
became emperors…Constantius died at York the next year. There,
his soldiers proclaimed Constantine emperor, but much
rivalry for the vacated office ensued…When Galerius died
in 310, still another claimant to the imperial throne appeared
in Maximin (d. 313), who allied himself with Maxentius against
the alliance of Licinius and Constantine. While Licinius
attacked Maximin, Constantine moved into Italy against Maxentius.
The rivals for Italy met (312) at the Milvian or Mulvian Bridge
over the Tiber near Rome. Before the battle Constantine,
who was already sympathetic toward Christianity, is said by
Eusebius of Caesarea to have seen in the sky a flaming cross
inscribed with the words, "In this sign thou shalt conquer."
He adopted the cross and was victorious. Maxentius was
routed and killed. The battle is regarded as a turning point
for Christianity…In 313 Constantine and his fellow emperor,
Licinius, met at Milan and there issued the so-called Edict
of Milan, confirming Galerius' edict of 309, which stated
that Christianity would be tolerated throughout the empire.
The edict in effect made Christianity a lawful religion, although
it did not, as is sometimes believed, make Christianity the
official state religion. No longer having Maximin to contend
with, Licinius challenged Constantine, and a brief struggle
followed. Constantine, victorious, took (315) control over
Greece and the Balkans, and the uneasy peace that followed
lasted until 324, when Licinius again vied with Constantine.
This time Licinius lost his throne and ultimately his life…Constantine
was now sole ruler of the empire, and in a reign of peace
he set about rebuilding the strength of old Rome. Constantine
continued to tolerate paganism and even to encourage the imperial
cult. At the same time, however, he endeavored to unify
and strengthen Christianity…In 314 he convened a synod at
Arles to regulate the Church in the West, and in 325 he
convened and presided over a council at Nicaea to deal with
the troubles over Arianism (see Nicaea, First Council
of). Thus Constantine evolved the idea of the ecumenical
council. In 330 he moved the capital to Byzantium, which
was rebuilt as Constantinople, a city predominantly Christian
and dedicated to the Virgin. He seems to have favored compromise
with Arianism, and in 335, in defiance of the Council of Tyre,
he exiled St. Athanasius…As the founder of the Christian empire,
Constantine began a new era. He was an absolute ruler,
and his reign saw the culmination of the tendency toward despotic
rule, centralized bureaucracy, and separation of military
and civil powers evolved by Diocletian…Historians differ
greatly in their assessments of Constantine's motives and
the depth of his Christian conviction. Early Christian
writers portray him as a devout convert, although they
have difficulty explaining his execution in 320 (on adultery
charges) of Crispus, his son by his first wife, and Fausta,
his wife. Some later historians see him as a political genius,
expediently using Christianity to unify his empire. An
intermediate interpretation pictures him as a pagan gradually
converted to Christianity (he was baptized on his deathbed),
using his new belief for personal ends much as earlier emperors
had used the imperial cult." - The Columbia Encyclopedia,
Sixth Edition. 2001.
"Augustine, Saint - Lat. Aurelius Augustinus,
354-430, one of the four Latin Fathers, bishop of Hippo
(near present-day Annaba, Algeria), b. Tagaste (c.40 mi/60
km S of Hippo)." - The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
2001…St. Augustine's influence on Christianity is thought
by many to be second only to that of St. Paul, and theologians,
both Roman Catholic and Protestant, look upon him as one of
the founders of Western theology…his best-known work is
the City of God (after 412)…Augustine regarded
all history as God's providential preparation of two mystical
cities, one of God and one of the devil, to one or the
other of which all humankind will finally belong…Against Donatism
St. Augustine directed two works, On Baptism and On
the Correction of the Donatists, in which he formulated
the idea, since then become part of Roman Catholicism, that
the church's authority is the guarantee of the Christian faith,
its own guarantee being the apostolic succession… The most
important and vitriolic controversy in which St. Augustine
was involved was his battle against Pelagianism. The Pelagians
denied original sin and the fall of humanity. The implication
of this aroused Augustine, who held that humanity was corrupt
and helpless. From his writings the great controversies
on grace proceed, and as professed followers of Augustine,
John Calvin and the Jansenists developed predestinarian theologies."
- The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2001.
"Origen - 185?-254?, Christian philosopher and
scholar. His full name was Origines Adamantius, and he was
born in Egypt, probably in Alexandria. When he was quite
young, his father was martyred. At the age of 18, Origen became
head of the catechetical school of Alexandria, where he had
studied under Clement of Alexandria…His interpretation of
the Scriptures in preaching and lecturing won him wide acclaim.
Later (c.230) the bishops of Jerusalem and Caesarea ordained
him, but Demetrius, his own bishop, ordered him deposed and
banished from Alexandria. In Caesarea, Origen founded (231)
a new school that became even more illustrious than the one
in Alexandria…Origen was imprisoned, tortured, and pilloried;
this experience probably caused his death some time after
his release. Learned in Greek philosophy, he was a most erudite
and profound biblical scholar as well. According to St.
Jerome he wrote 800 works. Extant are letters, apologies,
and exegeses. His critical edition of the Bible, the Hexapla,
is famous in the history of textual criticism; this was
a parallel edition of six Hebrew and two Greek versions. None
of these remains in its original form. Origen's system of
theology is given in his De principiis [on first principles],
known through a Latin version of Rufinus. The chief of his
apologies is Contra Celsum [against Celsus]. Origen
attempted to synthesize the fundamental principles of Greek
philosophy, particularly those of Neoplatonism and Stoicism,
with the Christianity of creed and Scripture so as to
prove the Christian view of the universe to be compatible
with Greek thought. Before St. Augustine, Origen was the
most influential theologian in the church. His threefold plan
of interpreting Scripture (literal, ethical, and allegorical)
influenced subsequent exegetical works. In spite of Origen's
fame as an apologist for Christianity, there was question
as to his orthodoxy. His somewhat recondite blending of pagan
philosophy with Christian theology led to his condemnation
by Justinian in the Monophysite controversy. There is good
reason to believe that he was often the victim of misquotation
and unfair interpretation." - The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. 2001.
"Clement of Alexandria - (Titus Flavius Clemens),
d. c.215, Greek theologian. Born in Athens, he traveled
widely and was converted to Christianity. He studied and
taught at the catechetical school in Alexandria until the
persecution of 202. Origen was his pupil there. He probably
died in Caesarea, Cappadocia. Clement was one of the first
to attempt a synthesis of Platonic and Christian thought;
in this his successors in the Alexandrian school were more
successful. Only a few works survive. He attacked Gnosticism,
but he himself has been called a Christian Gnostic. Although
Clement remained entirely orthodox, in his writing he
strove to state the faith in terms of contemporary thought.
He was long venerated as a saint, but Photius, in the 9th
cent., regarded Clement as a heretic. Because of Photius's
contentions the name of Clement was removed from the Roman
martyrology." - The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
2001.
"Cyprian, Saint - 200?-258, Father of the Church,
bishop of Carthage (c.248), and perhaps a disciple of Tertullian.
Converted in his middle age, he rose quickly to become the
most powerful bishop in Africa…He recognized the preeminence
of the Church of Rome, but fell into sharp dispute
with Pope Stephen I on the validity of baptism conferred by
heretics or schismatics; Cyprian believed persons so baptized
had to be rebaptized upon entering the church. The question
was settled in favor of the Roman teaching, after Cyprian's
martyrdom in the persecution of Valerian. He is mentioned
in the canon of the Mass." - The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. 2001.
"Clement I, Saint - or Clement of Rome, d. A.D.
97?…(A.D. 88?-A.D. 97?), martyr; successor of St. Cletus.
He may have known the apostles Peter and Paul and was a
highly esteemed figure in the church…He was succeeded
by St. Evaristus." - The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
2001.
"Arius - c.256-336, Libyan theologian, founder of
the Arian heresy. A parish priest in Alexandria, he
advanced the doctrine famous as Arianism and was excommunicated
locally (321). He was declared orthodox in Asia Minor,
where he had fled (323), but he was anathematized by the Council
of Nicaea (see Nicaea, First Council of) and banished by Roman
Emperor Constantine (325). But in the reaction after Nicaea,
he came into imperial favor. The emperor had ordered the Athanasians
at Alexandria to receive him at communion when he suddenly
died." - The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2001.
"Arianism - Christian heresy founded by Arius in
the 4th cent. It was one of the most widespread and divisive
heresies in the history of Christianity. As a priest in
Alexandria, Arius taught (c.318) that God created, before
all things, a Son who was the first creature, but who was
neither equal to nor coeternal with the Father. According
to Arius, Jesus was a supernatural creature not quite human
and not quite divine. In these ideas Arius followed the
school of Lucian of Antioch…Because of his heretical teachings,
Arius was condemned and deprived of his office. He fled
to Palestine and spread his doctrine among the masses through
popular sermons and songs, and among the powerful through
the efforts of influential leaders, such as Eusebius of Nicomedia
and, to a lesser extent, Eusebius of Caesarea. The civil
as well as the religious peace of the East was threatened,
and Roman Emperor Constantine I convoked (325) the first ecumenical
council (see Nicaea, First Council of)… Eusebius of Nicomedia
used this fear of Sabellianism to persuade Constantine to
return Arius to his duties in Alexandria. Athanasius, chief
defender of the Nicene formula, was bishop in Alexandria,
and conflict was inevitable. The Eusebians managed to secure
Athanasius' exile…" - The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. 2001.
"Eusebius of Nicomedia - d. 342, Christian churchman
and theologian, leader of the heresy of Arianism. He was
bishop of Nicomedia (330-39) and patriarch of Constantinople
(339-42); Eusebius was powerful because of his influence with
Roman Emperor Constantine I and particularly with the
emperor's son, Constantius II. He sheltered Arius in 321 and
fought his condemnation at Nicaea (see Nicaea, First Council
of). Eusebius signed the Nicene formulary but was exiled
by Constantine shortly afterward. Eusebius' influence
on the emperor's sister Constantia, however, soon won him
his reprieve (328). As adviser to Constantius, a committed
Arian, he systematically advanced a moderate Arianism throughout
the empire." - The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
2001.
"Eusebius of Caesarea - or Eusebius Pamphili, c.263-339?,
Greek apologist and church historian, b. Palestine. He was
bishop of Caesarea, Palestine (314?-339). In the controversy
over Arianism, Eusebius favored the semi-Arian views of Eusebius
of Nicomedia, and he once gave refuge to Arius. A simple
baptismal creed submitted by Eusebius at the First Council
of Nicaea (325) formed the basis of what became known as the
Nicean Creed; it was amended with the Greek word homoousios
[consubstantial, of the same substance] to define the Son's
relationship with the Father. Eusebius considered this
addition to the creed as reflecting the ideas of Sabellius,
which he opposed. Although he signed the formulary, he later
did not support it. His works include a universal history
entitled the Chronicle, the Ecclesiastical History,
and the apologetic works Praeparatio Evangelica and
Demonstratio Evangelica." - The Columbia Encyclopedia,
Sixth Edition. 2001.
"Nicaea, First Council of - 325, 1st ecumenical
council, convened by Roman Emperor Constantine the Great to
solve the problems raised by Arianism. It has been said
that 318 persons attended, but a more likely number is 225,
including every Eastern bishop of importance, four Western
bishops (among them Hosius of Córdoba, president of the council),
and two papal legates. The chief figures at the council
were Arius and his opponent, Athanasius. The council adopted,
as a test of faith, a formula that seems to have been based
on a simple baptismal creed presented possibly by Eusebius
of Caesarea; this was not, however, the creed generally circulated
today as the Nicene Creed (see creed). The formula included
the Greek word homoousion [consubstantial], which was
used concerning the Son and the Father. The word, suggested
probably by Hosius, became the touchstone of orthodoxy and
the bugbear of Arianism, for it established the divinity and
the equality of the Son to the Father. The creed was accepted
by all the bishops except two, who were banished along with
Arius to Illyricum. The council ruled on other questions
as well, attempting to standardize the date of Easter and
granting patriarchal authority to the bishop of Alexandria.
The First Council of Nicaea was significant as the model and
the original of great councils. The test it adopted provided
a universal statement of faith in place of the earlier and
varying baptismal formulas." - The Columbia Encyclopedia,
Sixth Edition. 2001.
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