Basic
Worldview:
103
Science, the Bible,
and Creation
Origins
- Section Three:
Evolution, Origin of Species
Origins - Section One: Introduction
and the Basics
Origins - Section Two: Premature
Dismissals
Origins - Section Two: Application
of the Basics
Origins - Section Three: Creation
Origins - Section Three: Evolution,
Origin of Life
Origins - Section Three: Evolution,
Environment for Life 1
Origins - Section Three: Evolution,
Environment for Life 2
Origins - Section Three: Evolution,
Another Planet
Origins - Section Three: Evolution,
Origin of Species
Origins - Section Three: Evolution,
Speciation Factors
Origins - Section Three: Evolution,
Speciation Rates
Origins - Section Four: Time and
Age, Redshift
Origins - Section Four: Philosophical
Preference
Origins - Section Four: Cosmological
Model 1
Origins - Section Four: Cosmological
Model 2
Origins - Section Four: Dating Methods,
Perceptions, Basics
Origins - Section Four: Global Flood
Evidence
Origins - Section Four: Relative
Dating
Origins - Section Four: Dating and
Circular Reasoning
Origins - Section Four: The Geologic
Column
Origins - Section Four: Radiometric
Dating Basics
Origins - Section Four: General
Radiometric Problems
Origins - Section Four: Carbon-14
Problems
Origins - Section Four: Remaining
Methods and Decay Rates
Origins - Section Four: Radiometric
Conclusions, Other Methods
Origins - Section Five: Overall
Conclusions, Closing Editorial
Origins - Section Five: List
of Evidences Table
Origins Debate Figures and
Illustrations
Evolution
on the Origin of Species: Introduction
As
we began our expanded commentary section on the defining points
of the theory of evolution, we stated that points 1, 2, and
3 would be addressed in the last 2 remaining sections of this
article series. This left points 4 and 5 to be addressed in
the expanded commentary on evolution. In the preceding segments
we have covered point 4, which defined the current status
of evolutionary theorization concerning the origin of life.
Consequently, in this segment, we turn to point 5,
which defines the current status of evolutionary theorization
concerning the origin of species.
Current
evolutionary theory on the origin of species was defined as
follows:
5)
Although the production of a new or different organism
from an existing organism occurs in steps that are too subtle
and slow to be observed directly and although the fossil record
likewise contains no intermediate or transitional forms, it
is advanced that all the varieties of organisms on earth today
are not reproductively static, but came into being as generations
of offspring from one original organism changed over time
into new and different types of organisms. Beneficial gene
mutations are acknowledged to be the only potential automatic,
routine source for the arrival of these new types of organisms.
The frequency of beneficial mutations is acknowledged to be
extremely rare. And although there are probability obstacles
concerning any theoretical beneficial mutation being passed
on through reproduction and accumulating in an order and association
necessary for new functions to result, the arrival of every
variety of organism, every trait, structure, and organ, and
every gene on the planet today are attributed to the automatic,
routine process of beneficial mutation.
There
are 2 crucial parts of this definitional statement that will
need to be established as acknowledged by evolutionary scientists
and secular sources. One pertains to evidence and the other
pertains to the explanatory mechanisms of evolutionary theory
itself. Subsequently, we can also assess the theory of evolution
on these 2 grounds. First, does evolution have a mechanism
capable of even theoretically explaining and producing the
origination of species? And second, does the observable evidence
support the evolutionary pillar that there is an overall,
universal continuum in which each species and even each different,
general type of organism emerged from those preceding it or
does the evidence indicate each different, general type of
organism exists in a static condition, reproductively unrelated
and isolated from one another? These are the questions, which
we will address in this segment and which we will answer specifically
through examining quotes from evolutionary and secular sources.
As
we begin this examination of evolutionary theorization on
the origin of species, perhaps the most important item to
point out is the centrality this issue has to the entire theory.
Darwin’s theory of evolution left out
and did not discuss the origin of life.
“The
(from life), The origin of life, Hypotheses of origins
– Although Darwin would not commit himself on the origin
of life, others subscribed to Hypothesis 4 more resolutely,
notably the famous British biologist T.H. Huxley in his Protoplasm,
the Physical Basis of Life (1869), and the British physicist
John Tyndall in his “Belfast Address” of 1874...The
primitive atmosphere – Darwin's
attitude was: ‘It is mere rubbish thinking at present
of the origin of life; one might as well think of the
origin of matter.’” – Encyclopaedia Britannica
2004 Deluxe Edition
Instead,
Darwin’s
theory was focused on and defined as a theory of how different
species come about. In fact, Darwin’s
book publicizing this theory was titled, The
Origin of Species.
“Evolution,
III DARWINIAN THEORY – A successful explanation of evolutionary processes was proposed by Charles Darwin.
His most famous book, On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural
Selection (1859), is a landmark in human understanding
of nature.” – "Evolution,"
Microsoft® Encarta® Encyclopedia 99. © 1993-1998 Microsoft
Corporation. All rights reserved.
“Evolution,
History of the theory of evolution – Darwin's theory. In 1858, Charles R. Darwin presented a joint paper written by him
and Alfred R. Wallace, another British naturalist, that proposed a theory of evolution. This theory, in modified form,
is accepted by almost every scientist today. It states that all species evolved from a few common ancestors by means
of natural selection. Darwin
developed the theory more thoroughly in his book, The Origin of Species (1859). The book became a best-seller.”
– Worldbook, Contributor: Alan R. Templeton, Ph.D.,
Rebstock Professor of Biology, Washington
University.
Although
Darwinian evolutionary theory originated as a focus on the
origin of species, even early on after Darwin’s theory was first circulated,
the origin of life began to be included in the concept of
biological evolution. Within a decade after the publication
of Darwin’s theory on evolution, other
evolutionary authors began to include the origin of life as
part of the theory of evolution.
“Life,
The origin of life, Hypotheses of origins – Most of the hypotheses of the origin of life will fall into one of four
categories: ...[4] Life
arose on the early Earth by a series of progressive chemical
reactions. Such reactions may have been likely or may
have required one or more highly improbable chemical events...Although
Darwin would not commit himself on the origin of life, others
subscribed to Hypothesis 4 more resolutely, notably
the famous British biologist T.H. Huxley in his Protoplasm, the Physical Basis of Life (1869), and the British physicist
John Tyndall in his “Belfast Address” of 1874. Although Huxley and Tyndall asserted that life could be generated from inorganic
chemicals, they had extremely vague ideas about how this
might be accomplished.
Consequently,
modern evolutionary theory has come to include the “origin”
or “formation” of life.
“Evolution
– Evolution is a process of change over time. The word evolution may refer to various types of change. For example,
scientists generally describe the
formation of the universe as having occurred through evolution.
Many astronomers think that the stars
and planets evolved from a huge cloud of hot gases. Anthropologists
study the evolution of human culture from
hunting and gathering societies to complex, industrialized
societies. Most commonly, however, evolution refers
to the formation and development of life on Earth. The
idea that all living things evolved from simple organisms
and changed through the ages to produce millions of species
is known as the theory of organic evolution. Most people call
it simply the theory of evolution.” – Worldbook,
Contributor: Alan R. Templeton, Ph.D., Rebstock Professor
of Biology, Washington University.
But,
despite the inclusion of the origin of life alongside the
issue of the origin of species, the changing of one species
into another remains the central, defining concept of evolution,
just as it has been since the beginning. As the 2 quotes below
demonstrate, Britannica and Worldbook Encyclopedia both agree
to fact that the origin of species is the central defining
concept in evolutionary theory.
“Evolution
– theory in biology postulating that the various types
of animals and plants have their origin in other preexisting
types and that the distinguishable differences are due to
modifications in successive generations. The theory of
evolution is one of the fundamental keystones of modern biological theory.” –
Encyclopaedia Britannica 2004 Deluxe Edition
“Evolution,
Main ideas of evolutionary theory – The theory of evolution consists of a set of several interrelated ideas.
The basic idea states that species undergo changes in their
inherited characteristics over time. There
are two main types of change in organic evolution: anagenesis
and cladogenesis. Anagenesis refers to changes that occur
within a species over time. Because of anagenetic change,
the forms and traits of many species today differ from the
forms and traits of their ancestors. Cladogenesis refers to the splitting of
one species into two or more descendant species. This branching process, also called speciation, can be repeated
to create many species. Current
evolutionary theory holds that all species evolved from a
single form of life which lived more than 3 1/2 billion years
ago. Over time,
repeated speciation events and anagenetic changes have produced
the more than 10 million species inhabiting Earth today.”
– Worldbook, Contributor: Alan R. Templeton, Ph.D.,
Rebstock Professor of Biology, Washington
University.
In
fact, after Darwin’s
Origin of Species was
published, subsequent major works and steps in the theory
of evolution continued to maintain focus on the origin of
species. This is exemplified in the development of the mutation
and synthetic theories of evolution.
In
Darwin’s time, genetics
were not understood and this left Darwin without a mechanism to explain the
new traits and resulting changes in a species.
“Evolution,
III DARWINIAN THEORY – Thus, according to Darwin's theory, evolution proceeds by the
natural selection of well-adapted individuals over a span
of many generations. The
parts of Darwin's theory that were
the most difficult to test scientifically were the inferences
about the heritability of traits, or characteristics, because
heredity was not understood at that time. The basic rules
of inheritance became known to science only at the turn of
the century, when the earlier genetic work of Gregor Mendel
came to light.” – "Evolution," Microsoft®
Encarta® Encyclopedia 99. © 1993-1998 Microsoft Corporation.
All rights reserved.
“Evolution,
History of the theory of evolution – Darwin had observed that the characteristics of
organisms may change during the process of being passed
on to offspring. However, he could not explain how or why
these changes took place because the principles of genetics
were not yet known. The
genetic principles of variation and mutation filled this gap
in Darwin's theory. Gregor Mendel, an Austrian
monk, had discovered the principles of genetics in the 1860's.
Mendel's findings remained unnoticed until
the early 1900's, when the science of genetics was established.”
– Worldbook, Contributor: Alan R. Templeton, Ph.D.,
Rebstock Professor of Biology, Washington
University.
When
Gregor Mendel’s studies in genetics were “rediscovered,”
this led to the new idea that genetic mutation was the cause
of evolutionary changes. And this evolutionary theory became
known as mutationism.
“Evolution,
History of evolutionary theory, Modern conceptions, The synthetic
theory – The rediscovery in 1900 of Mendel's theory
of heredity, by Hugo de Vries of The Netherlands and others,
led to an emphasis on the role of heredity in evolution. De
Vries proposed a new theory of evolution known as mutationism,
which essentially did away with natural selection as a major
evolutionary process. According to de Vries (joined by other
geneticists such as William Bateson in England), there are two kinds of variation that take place in organisms. One is the “ordinary” variability
observed among individuals of a species, which is of no lasting consequence in evolution because,
according to de Vries, it could not “lead to a transgression
of the species border even under conditions of the most stringent
and continued selection.” The
other consists of the changes brought about by mutations,
spontaneous alterations of genes that yield large modifications
of the organism and gave rise to new species: “The new
species thus originates suddenly, it is produced by the existing
one without any visible preparation and without transition.”
As
discussion on the mechanisms for the origination of new species
continued, the synthetic theory of evolution was developed.
The synthetic theory of evolution combined Darwin’s
natural selection mechanism with the mechanism of mutation
championed by mutationism.
“Evolution,
History of the theory of evolution – The synthetic theory was formulated during the 1930's and 1940's
by a number of scientists, including four American biologists-Sewall
Wright, George G. Simpson, Russian-born Theodosius Dobzhansky,
and German-born Ernst W. Mayr-and two British geneticists,
Ronald A. Fisher and J. B. S. Haldane. Their theory synthesizes (combines) Darwin's theory of natural
selection with the principles of genetics and other sciences.”
– Worldbook, Contributor: Alan R. Templeton, Ph.D.,
Rebstock Professor of Biology, Washington
University.
Theodosius
Dobzhansky, a main contributor to synthetic evolution, wrote
a book entitled, “Genetics
and the Origin of Species” further corroborating
that the focus of evolutionary theory remained the origin
of species.
“Evolution,
IV POPULATION GENETICS – Even while mutationism
was replacing Darwinism, the leading evolutionary theory,
the science of population genetics was being founded by Sewall
Wright, J. B. S. Haldane, and several other geneticists, all
working independently...Despite the mathematical support that
was developed for this view of evolution, most evolutionists
adhered to the theory of evolution by random mutations until
the late 1930s. At that time Theodosius Dobzhansky, in Genetics
and the Origin of Species, extended the mathematical arguments
with a wide range of experimental and observational evidence.”
– "Evolution," Microsoft® Encarta®
Encyclopedia 99. © 1993-1998 Microsoft Corporation. All rights
reserved.
“Evolution,
The synthetic theory
– The main writers who, together
with Dobzhansky, may be considered the
architects of the synthetic theory were the zoologists
Ernst Mayr and Sir Julian Huxley, the paleontologist
George G. Simpson, and the botanist George Ledyard Stebbins.
These researchers contributed to a burst
of evolutionary studies in the traditional biological
disciplines and in some emerging ones—notably population
genetics and, later, evolutionary ecology. By
1950 acceptance of Darwin's theory of evolution
by natural selection was universal among biologists, and the
synthetic theory had become widely adopted.” –
Encyclopaedia Britannica 2004 Deluxe Edition
Although
in the decades after the publication of Darwin’s “The
Origin of Species,” the origin of life quickly joined
the origin of species as the 2 main pillars of evolutionary
theory, the ongoing focus among evolutionists on identifying
the mechanisms for the origin of species demonstrates that
the origin of species has always been and still remains the
core, defining concept of evolutionary theory. Because of
its position as the core of evolutionary theory, it is utterly
crucial for evolutionary view to have a very well-established
and thoroughly evidenced explanation on how species originate.
But to the contrary, our definition of evolutionary theory
reflects that, in fact, evolutionary theory does not have
an explanation that is either well-established or evidenced
for how species originate. As a result, this definition may
at first seem controversial and perhaps biased.
Consequently,
in this segment we will now set about the task of demonstrating
that the definition above is indeed an accurate definition
of evolutionary theory on the origin of species rather than
simply a biased misrepresentation. And like the preceding
segments, we will accomplish this task by establishing the
points of the definition from secular sources, evolutionary
scientists, and mainstream scientific magazines so that the
definition will not in any way rely upon creationist writings
or characterizations of evolutionary theory.
Evolution on the Origin of Species: Evolution’s Mechanisms
As
stated during the introductory portion above, our fifth definitional
point for the theory of evolution addressed 2 critical issues,
which need to be established as objective fact rather than
a mere biased description. First, does evolution have a mechanism
capable of even theoretically explaining and producing the
origination of species? And second, does the observable evidence
support the evolutionary pillar that there is an overall,
universal continuum in which each species and even each different,
general type of organism emerged from those preceding it?
In
this segment, we will address the issue of the mechanism for
speciation asserted by evolutionary theory. The second half
of our definition of evolutionary theory on the origin of
species states that there are probability obstacles that strongly
negate evolutionary theories explanatory mechanism for speciation.
(Note again, that while we are using the evolutionary term
speciation, what really is at issue isn’t how variations
may occur within an existing type of organism, but how new
types of organisms originate.)
5)
…Beneficial gene mutations are acknowledged to be
the only potential automatic, routine source for the arrival
of these new types of organisms. The frequency of beneficial
mutations is acknowledged to be extremely rare. And although
there are probability obstacles concerning any theoretical
beneficial mutation being passed on through reproduction and
accumulating in an order and association necessary for new
functions to result, the arrival of every variety of organism,
every trait, structure, and organ, and every gene on the planet
today are attributed to the automatic, routine process of
beneficial mutation.
We
will now turn our attention to substantiating this definitional
point from evolutionary and secular sources.
As
indicated by the quotes in the introductory portion for this
segment, the synthetic theory of evolution combined genetic
mutation and natural selection as the main mechanisms for
the origination of species. The quotes below demonstrate that
modern evolutionary theory maintains this same position that
the 2 mechanisms for the origination of species are genetic
mutation and natural selection.
“Evolution,
Causes of evolutionary change – Much evolutionary change results from the interaction of two processes: (1) mutation and (2) natural
selection. Mutation produces random (chance) variation in
the biological makeup of a species or a population-that is,
individuals of the same species living in the same area. Natural
selection sorts out these random changes according to their
value in enhancing the individual's reproduction and survival.”
– Worldbook, Contributor: Alan R. Templeton, Ph.D.,
Rebstock Professor of Biology, Washington
University.
“Evolution,
The process of evolution, Evolution as a genetic function,
The concept of natural selection – Evolution
can be seen as a two-step process. First, hereditary variation
takes place; second, selection is made of those genetic variants
that will be passed on most effectively to the following
generations. Hereditary variation also entails two mechanisms: the spontaneous mutation of one variant
to another, and the
sexual process that recombines those variants to form
a multitude of variations.” – Encyclopaedia Britannica
2004 Deluxe Edition
Since
these are the 2 mechanisms asserted as the cause of species
origination according to evolutionary theory, we need to examine
the extent to which these mechanisms are actually capable
of producing new species. We’ll start with mutation.
Mutation
is the mechanism that produces variety, specifically genetic
variety. In fact, as the quotes below will state, mutation
is the only mechanism in evolution that produces and increases
variety. And without new variety becoming available you can’t
get new kinds of organisms to originate from previously existing
organisms.
“Evolution,
The process of evolution, Evolution as a genetic function,
The concept of natural selection – The
central argument of Darwin's
theory of evolution
starts from the existence of hereditary variation.”
– Encyclopaedia Britannica 2004 Deluxe Edition
“Evolution,
The process of evolution, Evolution as a genetic function,
The origin of genetic variation: mutations – Life
originated about 3,500,000,000 years ago in the form of
primordial organisms that were very simple and very small.
All living things have evolved from these lowly beginnings. At present
there are more than 2,000,000 known species, which are
widely diverse in size, shape, and way of life, as well as
in the DNA sequences that contain their genetic information.
What has produced the
pervasive genetic variation within natural populations
and the genetic differences among species? There must be some evolutionary means by which existing DNA sequences
are changed and new sequences are incorporated into the gene
pools of species. The information encoded in the nucleotide
sequence of DNA is, as a rule, faithfully reproduced
during replication, so that each replication results in
two DNA molecules that are identical to each other and to
the parent molecule. But heredity is not a perfectly conservative
process; otherwise, evolution could not have taken place.
Occasionally “mistakes,”
or mutations, occur in the DNA molecule during replication,
so that daughter cells differ from the parent cells in the sequence
or in the amount of DNA.” – Encyclopaedia Britannica
2004 Deluxe Edition
“Evolution,
The process of evolution, Evolution as a genetic function,
The origin of genetic variation: mutations – The
process of mutation provides each generation with many
new genetic variations.” –
Encyclopaedia Britannica 2004 Deluxe Edition
“Evolution,
Dynamics of genetic change, Processes of gene frequency change,
Mutation – The allelic
variations that make evolution possible are generated by the
process of mutation; but new mutations change gene frequencies
very slowly, since mutation rates are low.” –
Encyclopaedia Britannica 2004 Deluxe Edition
“Evolution,
Evolution as a genetic function, Genetic
variation in populations, The gene pool – The gene pool is the sum total of all of the genes and combinations
of genes that occur in a population of organisms of the same species…The necessity of hereditary variation
for evolutionary change to occur can be understood in terms
of the gene pool. Assume, for instance, that at the gene
locus that codes for the MN blood groups there is no variation;
only the M allele exists in all individuals. Evolution of the MN blood groups cannot take place in such a population,
since the allelic frequencies
have no opportunity to change from generation to generation.
On the other hand,
in populations in which both alleles M and N are present,
evolutionary change is possible.” – Encyclopaedia
Britannica 2004 Deluxe Edition
“Evolution,
The process of evolution, The operation of natural selection
in populations, Natural selection as a process of genetic
change – Hereditary variants, favourable or not
to the organisms, arise
by mutation.” – Encyclopaedia Britannica 2004
Deluxe Edition
“Evolution,
III DARWINIAN THEORY – The parts of Darwin's theory that were the most difficult
to test scientifically were the inferences about the heritability
of traits, or characteristics, because heredity was not understood
at that time. The basic
rules of inheritance became known to science only at the
turn of the century, when the earlier genetic work of Gregor
Mendel came to light…The
discovery was then made that inheritable changes in genes,
termed mutations, could occur spontaneously and randomly
without regard to the environment. Since mutations were seen to be the only
source of genetic novelty, many geneticists believed that
evolution was driven onward by the random accumulation of
favorable mutational changes.” – "Evolution,"
Microsoft® Encarta® Encyclopedia 99. © 1993-1998 Microsoft
Corporation. All rights reserved.
“Evolution,
Causes of evolutionary change – For natural selection to operate, two biological conditions must be
met. First, the individuals of a population must differ in
their hereditary characteristics...The second requirement
for natural selection is that some inherited differences must
affect chances for survival and reproduction.” –
Worldbook, Contributor: Alan R. Templeton, Ph.D., Rebstock
Professor of Biology, Washington University.
“Evolution,
Causes of evolutionary change – Only such mutations can introduce new hereditary characteristics. For
this reason, mutations
are the building blocks of evolutionary change and of the development of new species.” – Worldbook,
Contributor: Alan R. Templeton, Ph.D., Rebstock Professor
of Biology, Washington University.
“Evolution,
Causes of evolutionary change – Some mutations, however, help organisms adapt better to their environment…This
type of beneficial
mutation provides the raw material for evolutionary change.”
– Worldbook, Contributor: Alan R. Templeton, Ph.D.,
Rebstock Professor of Biology, Washington
University.
As
we can see, in evolution, mutation is what causes new genes,
genes that never existed before, to form. In other words,
mutation is a mechanism of addition without which evolution
has no explanation for how new kinds of organisms come into
existence.
And
while mutation is the source of new genes, in contrast, natural
selection does not add new genes or variety at all. Instead,
natural selection simply takes the existing variety that was
created by mutation and decreases it because individuals in
the population with less advantageous genes fail to survive
and reproduce. Over time, those non-advantageous genes are
removed from the population. And this is the process known
as natural selection.
“Evolution,
The process of evolution, Evolution as a genetic function,
The concept of natural selection – The central argument
of Darwin's theory of evolution starts from the existence of hereditary variation. Experience
with animal and plant breeding demonstrates that variations
can be developed that are “useful to man.” So, reasoned Darwin,
variations must occur in nature that are favourable or useful
in some way to the organism itself in the struggle for existence.
Favourable variations are ones that increase chances for
survival and procreation. Those advantageous variations are preserved and multiplied from generation
to generation at the expense of less advantageous ones. This
is the process known as natural selection. The outcome
of the process is an organism that is well adapted to its
environment, and evolution often occurs as a consequence.”
– Encyclopaedia Britannica 2004 Deluxe Edition
“Natural
Selection – Natural Selection, in biology, the process
by which environmental effects lead to varying degrees
of reproductive success among individuals of a population
of organisms with different
hereditary characters, or traits. The
characters that inhibit reproductive success decrease in frequency
from generation to generation. The resulting increase
in the proportion of reproductively successful individuals
usually enhances the adaptation of the population to its environment.”
– "Natural Selection," Microsoft® Encarta®
Encyclopedia 99. © 1993-1998 Microsoft Corporation. All rights
reserved.
“Evolution,
V THE SYNTHETIC THEORY – Mutations
are now known to be changes in the position of a gene, or
in the information coded in the gene, that
can affect the function of the protein for which the gene is responsible. Natural selection can then operate to favor or suppress a particular
gene according to how strongly its protein product contributes
to the reproductive success
of the organism.” – "Evolution,"
Microsoft® Encarta® Encyclopedia 99. © 1993-1998 Microsoft
Corporation. All rights reserved.
“Evolution,
Causes of evolutionary change – Much evolutionary
change results from the interaction of two processes: (1)
mutation and (2) natural selection. Mutation produces random (chance) variation in
the biological makeup of a species or a population-that is,
individuals of the same species living in the same area. Natural selection sorts out these random changes according to their
value in enhancing the individual's reproduction and survival.
Such selection ensures that variations that make individuals
better adapted to their environment will be passed on to future
generations. At the same time, natural selection eliminates
variations that make individuals less able to survive.”
– Worldbook, Contributor: Alan R. Templeton, Ph.D.,
Rebstock Professor of Biology, Washington
University.
“Evolution,
The process of evolution, The operation of natural selection
in populations, Natural selection as a process of genetic
change – Natural selection refers to any reproductive
bias favouring some genes or genotypes over others. Natural
selection promotes the adaptation of organisms to the environments
in which they live; any
hereditary variant that improves the ability to survive and
reproduce in an environment will
increase in frequency over the generations, precisely
because the organisms carrying such a variant will leave more
descendants than those lacking it. Hereditary variants, favourable or
not to the organisms, arise by mutation.
Unfavourable ones are eventually eliminated by natural selection;
their carriers leave no descendants or leave
fewer than those carrying alternative variants.”
– Encyclopaedia Britannica 2004 Deluxe Edition
Consequently,
natural selection is a subtractive mechanism. It does not
add new genetic information or variety but eliminates the
weaker or disadvantageous genetic varieties from a population.
It works on variety that already exists in a population. And
for this reason, natural selection is completely compatible
with and accepted by creationist theory. Creationism asserts
that each species was created with an existing, very broad
variety of genes and that natural selection works on that
existing gene pool. (This function for natural selection in
the creationist model is outlined by the gene pool illustrations
in our expanded commentary on creation theory.) Evolutionists
assert that each species emerges as new genes are formed by
the mechanism of mutation and that natural selection then
works on those new genes. But both theories include the mechanism
of natural selection and agree on its function of ensuring
a strong population geared for survival in the surrounding
environment.
Therefore,
the question is not whether a mechanism exists, such as natural
selection, which will remove disadvantageous genes and traits
from a population in a particular environment in order to
keep that population as survivable and strong as possible.
And as such, simply proving that natural selection occurs
does not do anything to support evolutionary theory over creation
theory since both theories acknowledge and incorporate natural
selection into their respective models.
The
question is “where did the original genes come from
for each species in the first place?” Where the theories
differ is on the source of the existing genetic variety.
In
evolutionary theory, the only mechanism that produces anything
new is mutation. Natural selection cannot produce new genes
or new species (or new kinds of organisms). It makes sure
that the new species that mutation produces are ones that
are fit for survival. But as such, it only limits the process,
limiting the process to the production of only survivable
species. It does not cause that process.
As
indicated by the quotes above, the origination of new species
requires new genes. New genetic material is the very substance
of new species (and new kinds of organisms). And, as the quotes
above also indicate, the only way to get new genetic material
is by mutation. Therefore, there is really only one mechanism
to examine when considering whether or not evolution has a
valid explanation for how species (and especially new kinds
of organisms) originate. And that is mutation. It is mutation,
not natural selection, which needs to be established as a
viable, efficient, and frequent enough occurrence to produce
enough new genetic material to produce new species and whole
new types of organisms. Mutation alone is both the only mechanism
offered by evolution that is even theoretically capable of
generating new species as well as the pivotal factor determining
which theory for the origin of species is the more viable.
Furthermore, it must also be emphasized that without the production
of new beneficial genetic material by mutation, natural selection
will only operate exactly as described in the creation model,
even as outlined in the gene pool discussion during our expanded
commentary on creationism.
In
order for the origin of species to occur by evolution, mutation
must be a viable mechanism. If mutation is not sufficient
to produce enough new genetic material that is beneficial,
then evolutionary theory simply does not have a working mechanism
for the origination of species (specifically new kinds of
organisms) by automatic, routine processes. This is what is
asserted in our fifth definitional point for evolutionary
theory and, consequently, this is the very point that this
segment is intended to establish from evolutionary and secular
sources.
So,
the fundamental question that needs to be examined is whether
or not mutation is capable of producing new species (new kinds
of organisms), and in fact, for producing all of the species
(kinds of organisms) that we see today. For contrast’s
sake, it should be noted that there are over 2,000,000 (2
million) species that we know about today and scientists estimate
that there may be at least 10,000,000 to 30,000,000 (10-30
million) more left to be discovered.
“Evolution –More than
2,000,000 existing species of plants and animals have been
named and described; many more remain to be discovered—from
10,000,000 to 30,000,000 according to some estimates.”
– Encyclopaedia Britannica 2004 Deluxe
Edition
With
that figure in mind, let’s examine what secular and
evolutionary sources state about the likelihood, constraints,
and efficiency of producing new genetic information and new
species (new kinds of organisms) by mutation.
First,
mutations, in general, are rare.
“Evolution,
The process of evolution, Evolution as a genetic function,
The origin of genetic variation: mutations – The
information encoded in the nucleotide sequence of
DNA is, as a rule, faithfully reproduced during replication,
so that each replication results in two DNA molecules
that are identical to each other and to the parent molecule.
But heredity is not a perfectly conservative
process; otherwise, evolution could not have taken place.
Occasionally “mistakes,”
or mutations, occur in the DNA molecule during replication,
so that daughter cells differ from the parent cells in the sequence
or in the amount of DNA.” – Encyclopaedia Britannica
2004 Deluxe Edition
“Evolution,
XI MUTATIONS – Although the replication of DNA is
very precise, it is not uniformly perfect. Very
rarely, changes occur in DNA during replication, and the
new piece of DNA contains one or more changed nucleotides.
Such a change, known as a mutation, may take place in any part of
the DNA.” – "Genetics," Microsoft® Encarta®
Encyclopedia 99. © 1993-1998 Microsoft Corporation. All rights
reserved.
“Evolution,
Dynamics of genetic change, Processes of gene frequency change
Mutation
– The allelic variations that make evolution possible
are generated by the process of mutation; but new mutations
change gene frequencies very slowly, since mutation rates
are low.” – Encyclopaedia Britannica 2004
Deluxe Edition
Second,
most mutations are either harmful or neutral and irrelevant.
Consequently, they are removed by natural selection because
they either provide no advantage or provide a disadvantage.
“Evolution,
Causes of evolutionary change – Mutations occur regularly but are usually infrequent, and most of them produce unfavorable traits…In
most cases, such mutant genes are eliminated by natural selection
because most individuals that inherit them die before producing
any offspring.” – Worldbook, Contributor:
Alan R. Templeton, Ph.D., Rebstock Professor of Biology, Washington University.
“Evolution,
XI MUTATIONS, A Gene Mutation – Most gene mutations are harmful to the organisms that carry them;
the function of
a complex system such as a
protein is more easily destroyed than improved by a random
change.” – "Genetics," Microsoft®
Encarta® Encyclopedia 99. © 1993-1998 Microsoft Corporation.
All rights reserved.
“Evolution,
XI MUTATIONS, B Chromosome Mutations – The substitution of one nucleotide for another is not the only possible
kind of mutation. Sometimes
a nucleotide may be entirely lost or one may be gained.
In addition, more dramatic and obvious changes may occur,
or the chromosomes themselves may alter in form or number…Sometimes
a piece of chromosome will be lost from one member of a pair
of homologous chromosomes and gained by the other member.
One of the pair is then said to have a deficiency and
the other a duplication. Deficiencies are usually lethal in the homozygous condition, and duplications
are often so…Another
kind of mutation occurs when a pair of homologous chromosomes
fails to separate at meiosis. This can produce gametes-and
hence zygotes-with extra chromosomes and others with one or
more chromosomes missing. Individuals with an extra chromosome
are known as trisomics, and those with a missing chromosome
as monosomics. Both
conditions tend to result in severe disabilities.”
– "Genetics," Microsoft® Encarta® Encyclopedia
99. © 1993-1998 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.
“Gene
– Mutations occur when the number or order of bases
in a gene is disrupted. Nucleotides can be deleted, doubled,
rearranged, or replaced, with each alteration having a particular
effect. The mutation generally has little or no effect; when it does alter an
organism, the change is frequently lethal. A beneficial
mutation will rise in frequency within a population until
it becomes the norm.” – Encyclopaedia Britannica
2004 Deluxe Edition
Because
they are harmful or neutral and subsequently removed by natural
selection, most mutations do not contribute to the origin
of new species (or rather, new kinds of organisms).
Third,
in order to contribute to the origination of a new species,
a mutation must be beneficial, as opposed to harmful, lethal,
or neutral and irrelevant.
“Evolution,
Causes of evolutionary change – Some mutations, however, help organisms adapt better to their environment…This
type of beneficial
mutation provides the raw material for evolutionary change.”
– Worldbook, Contributor: Alan R. Templeton, Ph.D.,
Rebstock Professor of Biology, Washington
University.
However,
while mutations in general are rare and most come in the form
of harmful and neutral mutations, beneficial mutations are
even more infrequent than harmful or neutral mutations.
“Evolution,
The process of evolution, Evolution as a genetic function,
The origin of genetic variation: mutations, Gene mutations
– The consequences of gene mutations may range from negligible to lethal…Newly
arisen mutations are more likely to be harmful than beneficial
to their carriers,
because mutations
are random events with respect to adaptation; that is,
their occurrence is independent of any possible consequences.” – Encyclopaedia
Britannica 2004 Deluxe Edition
We
will cover more on the rarity of beneficial mutations below.
For now, it is simply important to take note that beneficial
mutations are the rarest kind of mutation.
Fourth,
mutations are random and independent. Their occurrence is
not determined by or related to any potential adaptive advantage,
which would constitute foresight and teleology.
“Evolution,
The process of evolution, Evolution as a genetic function,
The origin of genetic variation: mutations, Gene mutations
– …mutations are random events with respect
to adaptation; that is, their occurrence is independent of any possible consequences.” – Encyclopaedia
Britannica 2004 Deluxe Edition
“Evolution,
III DARWINIAN THEORY – The
basic rules of inheritance became known to science only
at the turn of the century, when
the earlier genetic work of Gregor Mendel came to light…The discovery was then made that inheritable changes in genes, termed
mutations, could
occur spontaneously and randomly without regard to the environment.”
– "Evolution," Microsoft® Encarta® Encyclopedia
99. © 1993-1998 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.
This
severely limits the likelihood of getting a series of mutations
necessary to produce any new functional structure or organ,
since such items are controlled by more than one gene. The
arrival of even 2 new beneficial genes that relate to one
another in function is highly improbable and indicative of
foresight and purposeful order in mutation.
Fifth,
to contribute to the eventual production of a new species,
a mutation must occur in an organism that actually produced
fertile offspring, offspring which in turn reproduced.
"Evolution,
Causes of evolutionary change – If the parents produce a limited number of offspring, some of their
genes may not be passed on." – Worldbook, Contributor:
Alan R. Templeton, Ph.D., Rebstock Professor of Biology, Washington University.
Sixth,
to contribute to the origin of species, mutation must occur
in the gametes of an organism. Gametes are the reproductive
cells of an organism.
“Evolution,
The process of evolution, Evolution as a genetic function,
The origin of genetic variation: mutations, Chromosomal mutations
– The reproductive cells (gametes) are an
exception; they have only half as many chromosomes as the
body (somatic) cells.”
– Encyclopaedia Britannica 2004 Deluxe Edition
If
a mutation is not present in the reproductive cells, it will
not be passed on to the next generation and, therefore, cannot
contribute to the origin of a new species.
Seventh,
not all gametes contribute to an offspring. Chromosomes occur
in pairs and each chromosome in a pair is different from its
counterpart because each chromosome in a pair comes from a
different parent.
"Chromosome,
IV CHROMOSOME NUMBER – In
the cells of most organisms that reproduce sexually, chromosomes
occur in pairs: one that is inherited from the female parent,
and one that is inherited from the male parent. The two
chromosomes of each pair contain genetic information that
corresponds to the same inherited characteristics.”
– "Chromosome," Microsoft® Encarta® Encyclopedia
99. © 1993-1998 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.
Each
gamete, or reproductive cell, has only 1 of the chromosomes
in the chromosome pair so that they have half of the number
of chromosomes found in normal body cells. In humans, for
example, reproductive cells have only 23 chromosomes, while
normal body cells have 46. When gametes combine with the gamete
from the other parent or gamete during fertilization, the
newly formed cell then has a full set of chromosomes, half
from each parent or gamete.
“Evolution,
The process of evolution, Evolution as a genetic function,
The origin of genetic variation: mutations, Chromosomal mutations
– The reproductive cells
(gametes) are an exception; they
have only half as many chromosomes as the body (somatic) cells.”
– Encyclopaedia Britannica 2004 Deluxe Edition
"Heredity,
Sex cells and reproduction – Sexual
reproduction generally involves two parents, each of which contributes half the chromosomes to the offspring.
Sexual reproduction starts with the production of specialized
sex cells that are called gametes. Gametes-that
is, sperm, pollen grains, and eggs-are produced in a process
of cell division called meiosis. Meiosis
results in the sex cells' having half the number of chromosomes
found in the body cells. In
human beings, therefore, meiosis produces sperm and egg cells
that have 23 chromosomes each. In dogs, the number of chromosomes
in each sex cell is 39. The uniting of an egg cell and a sperm
cell, called fertilization, restores
the full number of chromosomes. In human beings, the resulting
cell, known as a fertilized
egg, has 46 chromosomes, 23 pairs. One
chromosome of each pair comes from the mother's egg, and the
other from the father's sperm." - Worldbook, Contributors:
Philip W. Hedrick, Ph.D., Professor of Biology, Arizona State
University, Robert F. Weaver, Ph.D., Associate Dean, College
of Liberal Arts and Sciences and Professor, Department of
Molecular Biosciences, University of Kansas.
This
removal of one of the chromosomes in a chromosome pair during
the formation of the gametes occurs, not just in animals,
but in most plants as well.
“Reproductive
system, plant – Reproduction
in plants is basically either asexual or sexual. Asexual
reproduction in plants involves a variety of widely disparate
methods for creating new plants identical in every respect
to the parent. Sexual reproduction, on the other hand, depends on a complex series of basic cellular events,
involving chromosomes and their genes, that take place within
an elaborate sexual apparatus evolved precisely for the creation of new plants in some respects different from the two parents
that played a role in their production…General features
of sexual systems – In most plant groups both sexual
and asexual methods of reproduction occur. Some species,
however, seem secondarily to have lost the capacity for sexual
reproduction. Such cases are described below (see Variations
in reproductive cycles).” – Encyclopaedia Britannica
2004 Deluxe Edition
Moreover,
evolutionary scientists estimate that mutations in general
(not specifically the rarer beneficial mutations) only occur
in 1 out of 100,000 gametes to 1 out of 1,000,000 gametes.
“Evolution,
The process of evolution, Evolution as a genetic function,
The origin of genetic variation: mutations, Gene mutations
– Mutation rates have been
measured in a great variety of organisms, mostly for mutants
that exhibit conspicuous effects. Mutation rates are generally
lower in bacteria and other microorganisms than in more complex
species. In humans and other multicellular organisms, the rate typically
ranges from about one
per 100,000 to one per 1,000,000 gametes.” –
Encyclopaedia Britannica 2004 Deluxe Edition
This
means that the odds against any gamete with a mutation being
involved in fertilization are typically between 100,000 or
even 1 million to one in multicellular organisms. The likelihood
is even lower for beneficial mutations.
Therefore,
even if a mutation gives
an organism survival advantage or reproductive advantage,
that mutation will not pass on to the next generation and
contribute to the origin of species unless it is on the actual
chromosome from the chromosome pair that actually makes it
into the specific gamete, which fertilized to form the offspring.
In short, to contribute to the origin of species, a mutation
must not only occur among the gametes in general but the mutation
must be present in the specific individual gamete that participates
in fertilization of the next generation.
Eighth,
mutations are usually recessive and, consequently, do not
manifest until or unless the other parent or other gamete
also possesses the same mutation.
“Evolution,
XI MUTATIONS, A Gene Mutation – Mutations are usually recessive, and their harmful effects are not expressed
unless two of them are brought together into the homozygous
condition. This is most likely to occur as a result of
inbreeding, the mating of closely related
organisms that may have inherited the same recessive mutant
gene from a common ancestor.” – "Genetics,"
Microsoft® Encarta® Encyclopedia 99. © 1993-1998 Microsoft
Corporation. All rights reserved.
Moreover,
since most mutations are recessive and therefore will not
manifest, they will not produce an advantage to the organism
and, consequently, are likely to be removed by natural selection
rather than being passed on to contribute to the origin of
a new species. Although focusing on the need for environmental
changes, the quote below nevertheless explains that, due to
natural selection, the existing genes of a population are
usually already geared for survival so that any new gene that
does not produce an advantage, such as one that is recessive
and does not manifest, will most likely be removed by natural
selection. This leads to an additional factor.
Ninth,
new genes, even beneficial ones, will be removed by natural
selection unless there is an accompanying change to the environment.
“VI
SPECIATION – Because
all the established genes in a population have been monitored
for fitness by selection, newly arisen mutations are unlikely
to enhance fitness unless the environment changes so as to
favor the new gene activity, as in the gene for dark color
in the peppered moth. Novel
genes that cause large changes rarely promote fitness and
are usually lethal. The genes already established by selection
are carefully adjusted to one another so their biochemical
effects are coordinated.” – "Evolution,"
Microsoft® Encarta® Encyclopedia 99. © 1993-1998 Microsoft
Corporation. All rights reserved.
Consequently,
any new genes which are recessive and, therefore, do not actually
manifest an advantage in the environment, are not going to
contribute to the origin of species (or new kinds of organisms).
Ultimately, this means that lightning must strike in the same
place twice. Since mutations are recessive, in order to manifest
and thereby contribute to the origination of a new species
and avoid removal by natural selection, the following would
have to occur. Although providing no competitive advantage
because it does not manifest, a beneficial mutation would
need to avoid elimination by natural selection for enough
generations that the particular mutation would be distributed
sufficiently throughout the population to the extent that
two individuals mate, which were both carrying the mutation,
and long enough for the recessive mutation to by chance end
up in the particular gametes that fertilized the next generation.
Only in this way could a generation arrive in which the beneficial
mutation would manifest in an individual organism with only
the 2 recessive mutated genes.
At
this point, we’ve seen 9 facts that dramatically inhibit
the possibility of beneficial mutation producing new species.
Those factors can be summarized as follows. The quotes in
the summary below represent statements taken directly from
the excerpts above. First, “DNA is, as a rule, faithfully
reproduced during replication,” and consequently mutations
are “very rare.” Second, “gene mutations
may range from negligible to lethal” so that “mutation
generally has little or no effect; when it does alter an organism,
the change is frequently lethal.” Third, as such, in
order to contribute to the origination of a species, a mutation
must be beneficial, adding an advantageous function rather
than removing or harming existing functions. It is “beneficial
mutation” that “provides the raw material for
evolutionary change.” Fourth, “mutations are random
events…their occurrence is independent of any possible
consequences” and “without regard to the environment.”
As such, to the extent that multiple genes are required for
a new trait, structure, or organ, gene mutations are not likely
to occur conveniently all at once or in the sequence necessary
for development. Fifth, “If the parents produce a limited
number of offspring, some of their genes may not be passed
on." Consequently, to contribute to the origin of a new
species, the mutation must occur in an individual organism
that actually produces new offspring. Sixth, to contribute
to the origin of a new species, the mutation must occur in
the gametes, the reproductive cells of the organism. Seventh,
to contribute to the origin of a new species, the mutation
must actually be present in the exact gamete that participates
in fertilization. And eighth, “Mutations are usually
recessive,” and, therefore, whether beneficial or harmful,
their “effects are not expressed unless two of them
are brought together” during fertilization, which means
that both gametes from both parents have to posses the exact
same mutation. If this does not occur, no advantage will be
manifested by the new gene, and as such, natural selection
will work to eliminate the new gene from the population. Ninth,
“newly arisen mutations are unlikely to enhance fitness
unless the environment changes so as to favor the new gene
activity” and as a result, without a change to the environment,
any new gene, even a beneficial one, is going to be eliminated
by natural selection.
All
of these factors, particularly when considered collectively,
indicate that the prospect of new species (new kinds of organisms)
originating by beneficial mutation is untenable. The idea
of a mutation occurring that is neither harmful or negligible
but beneficial, occurring in an organism that survives long
enough to reproduce, making it to the gametes, ending up in
the gamete that participates in fertilization, being present
through this process in the other parent or gamete involved
in reproduction, this occurring with the right genes in the
right order to develop structures and organs that are controlled
by multiple genes, and having a corresponding change in the
environment at just the right time when all this occurring
is defies probability. With all these requirements, even if
such a series of events did happen to coincide, the unlikelihood
of each step and the further unlikelihood of all the steps
would indicate the presence of foresight and teleological
orchestration. Add to this that in order to account for all
of the genetic variety that is produced in every living organism
that exists today within 3.8 billion years this highly improbably
series of coincidences must have repeated over and over again
quite frequently.