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Foundations
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201
Bible Translations and Manuscripts
Are Translations
Unreliable? (Part 2)
Are Translations Unreliable?
(Part 1)
Are Translations Unreliable?
(Part 2)
A Brief Examination of Manuscript
Variation Issues
Measuring Accuracy: How to Translate and Interpret Reliably
Since translations can be reliable but are not infallible,
how do we measure and establish accuracy so that we can know
that not only the translation is reliably accurate but that
the doctrines resulting from a translation are reliably accurate
as well?
As we have said from very early on in this article, accuracy
can be measured with concrete methods and criteria. As such,
since the reliability of a translation is dependent upon the
accuracy with which it preserves the meaning of the infallible
original, reliability is also measured by these same criteria.
(The issue of which manuscripts are used in a translation
is also involved in reliability but that issue is not dealt
with here. For more information on that topic, please visit
the links to articles by author Tim Warner under our section
titled, "Bible Translations and Manuscripts.")
The methods and criteria outlined in this segment describe
the steps that scholars employ when translating. The accuracy
of a translation can be measured by the extent to which a
translation makes its word and grammar choices in accordance
with these steps and criteria for determining word meaning.
Our purpose in outlining these items here is threefold.
First, our purpose is to share the steps individuals can perform
so that they can understand the Bible for themselves without
needing to rely on an intervening interpreter to preside as
an authority over the Word of God in their lives. Second,
our purpose is to explain the process of translation in simple,
accurate terms in order to take it out of the mystified cloud
in which some scholars portray it. In this way we will build
confidence in scripture's self-sufficiency and the principal
of sola scriptura rather than building up any need
for an authoritative interpreter to preside over the meaning
of scripture. Third, our purpose is to both explain and defend
the methods employed when deriving meaning from passages and
words in our own studies by showing that our own methods perfectly
conform to the steps used by scholars when translating.
At this point we should talk briefly about harmony. In hermeneutic
terms, harmony is one of the main principles of the grammatical-historical
method of interpreting scripture. The principle of harmony
is based upon the idea that two particular qualities of scripture
logically require us to make a necessary assumption when interpreting
the meaning, teaching, or position of scripture on a particular
topic or in a particular passage. The two particular qualities
of scripture in view here are 1) that scripture is
infallible and therefore cannot contradict itself and 2)
that scripture was written in progressive revelation by God
so that each revelation built upon what had been previously
revealed. (For more information on the meaning and significance
of these 2 issues, please visit our article entitled, "Hermeneutic
Systems and the Grammatical Historical Method.")
These two qualities of scripture logically imply that what
scripture says on a topic in one passage will have consistency
and continuity with what scripture says on that same topic
in another passage. Different passages on the same topic will
either be contemporary with one another, in which case they
will concur, or will logically build from or built toward
each other. Thus, two passages on the same topic will harmonize
with each other. They will harmonize because God revealed
his truth progressively building strategically and deliberately
on prior revelations and God cannot contradict himself.
As such, when we interpret scripture to develop an understanding
of it's meaning, we should always try to build uniformity
and continuity from start to finish on a particular topic.
We should always assume passages on the same topic will be
part of a continuous commentary on that topic throughout scripture
rather than a variety of diverse, unrelated, dismembered,
or contradictory thoughts on a particular topic area.
What we will see in this section is that this principle is
necessary not only on the larger scale when comparing one
passage to other passages, but also on the microscopic level
of determining the meaning of words as it pertains to translation
and interpretation.
This brings us to the segment outlining the criteria used
for discovering and establishing meaning. This is, of course,
the most essential and fundamental aspect of all interpretation,
whether within a single language or between languages, and
therefore including translation. The steps or criteria for
determining meaning outlined below allow us to measure the
reliability of a translation in concrete terms that will yield
consistent and accurate results. It is adherence to these
criteria that allows translations to be reliably used to establish
doctrine even though a translation is not infallible.
This is the case for the simple reason that these criteria
make the original language the measure to which we defer when
examining translations. Thus, the original language remains
the infallible authority and the translation's reliability
is tied directly to its accurate representation of the meaning
of the original as determined in accordance with these criteria.
For the purposes of interpretation it is necessary at this
point to define accuracy and reliability in more direct terms.
For the purposes of interpretation, reliability is
measured by the degree to which a fallible translation is
an accurate articulation of the meaning of the infallible
original. For the purposes of interpretation, accuracy
is defined as the degree to which a fallible translation preserves
or deviates from the meaning of the infallible original.
But before we get into the criteria that determine the meaning
of a word, it is necessary to establish a few basic facts
on this topic.
First, the study of word meaning is the science known as semantics.
"Semantics - also called semiotics, semology, or semasiology,
the philosophical and scientific study of meaning...The
word semantics has ultimately prevailed as a name for the
doctrine of meaning, in particular, of linguistic meaning.
Semiotics is still used, however, to denote a broader field:
the study of sign-using behaviour in general." - Britannica.com
"Semantics, Meaning in linguistics, Semantics in the theory
of language - semantics, the study of the elements of a language
from the point of view of meaning; and syntax, the study
of the formal interrelations that exist between the elements
of a language (i.e., sounds, words) themselves. Subsequently,
certain authors spoke of three levels: the phonetic, the syntactic
(the phonetic and syntactic together are often called grammatical),
and the semantic level." - Britannica.com
"Semantics - 1. Linguistics The study
or science of meaning in language. 2. Linguistics
The study of relationships between signs and symbols and what
they represent. Also called semasiology. 3. The
meaning or the interpretation of a word, sentence, or other
language form." - The American Heritage Dictionary of
the English Language: Fourth Edition. 2000.
"Semantics - in general, the study of the relationship
between words and meanings. The empirical study of word meanings
and sentence meanings in existing languages is a branch of
linguistics...In linguistics, semantics has its beginnings
in France and Germany in the 1820s when the meanings of
words as significant features in the growth of language was
recognized." - The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
2001.
The inclusion of the word "empirical" in the quotation above
indicates the scientific nature of the process of determining
word meaning. It indicates, as we have said all along, that
there are measurable criteria for determining meaning, and
therefore for determining the accuracy and reliability of
translations as well. And of course, to express meaning is
to articulate the concept contained in a word using alternate
words. Once again, we recall our earlier example of a dictionary
that defines every word only by that word itself. The word
strong means strong. The word fluid means fluid. Such a dictionary
would be useless. So the very process of determining meaning
inherently requires that meaning can be accurately and reliably
expressed using alternate words.
As we continue ahead to the actual empirical criteria, this
is where we begin to take the mystery out of word meaning
- a topic before which some modern scholars might want us
to be dazzled in awe and confusion. Unfortunately, some have
presented the study of word meaning and translation as though
we were the Israelites in Exodus crying out to Moses before
the fiery appearance of God on the mountain, "You go up for
us and figure this out. It is too much for us." But translation
and word meaning are not as immense or frightening as that
famous event, not by any means. But unless they are portrayed
that way, we'll lose our perception that we need an authoritative
interpreter to perform the impossible task of determining
the meaning of scripture for us. But that perception itself
undermines sola scriptura by creating the need for
an authoritative interpreter who presides over even the meaning
of scripture in our lives.
Now we are ready to discuss the criteria or methods for determining
word meaning, whether in translation or interpretation within
the same language. After we cover these criteria, we will
discuss the how's and why's behind them and what that means
for our interpretive methods when we study the Bible. In this
way we will take the mystery and obscurity out of the meaning
of the words of the Bible and out of the process of interpretation
by showing the simple techniques available to everyone for
discovering the meaning of a word, and therefore of a text
as a whole.
Our analysis here is intended to break down the process of
translation into simpler terms but a more comprehensive explanation
can be found at the following website address:
http://www.concordant.org/expohtml/TheScriptures/tranprin.html
(NOTE: The article at the web address above is written
by James Coram of the Concordant Publishing Concern,
a "denominationally independent nonprofit association for
Scripture research," which also describes itself as "not a
church, but a translating and teaching ministry," which has
been around since its founding "in 1909 in Los Angeles, California.")
There are 5 criteria that scholars use to determine word meaning.
These same criteria are employed in our Bible studying.
Word meaning is indicated by:
1.) Etymology.
2.) Grammar.
3.) Immediate Context.
4.) Usage/Multiple Contexts.
5.) Translation Contexts.
Etymology
"Etymology - 1. The origin and historical
development of a linguistic form as shown by determining
its basic elements, earliest known use, and changes in
form and meaning, tracing its transmission from one language
to another, identifying its cognates in other languages, and
reconstructing its ancestral form where possible. 2. The
branch of linguistics that deals with etymologies." -
The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language:
Fourth Edition. 2000.
Etymology has to do with where a word came from. Most words
are derivatives of other, more basic "root" words. Some words
are compounds words that are formed when two or more simpler
words are put together. Other words are borrowed or adapted
from other languages. By looking at such things, we can get
some understanding of the essential meaning or concept a word
is used to describe. But, because by its very nature, etymology
is the study of how a word has changed over time, adapted,
or been modified through compounding, etymology is typically
thought of as a lesser factor in discovering the meaning of
a word.
"In consideration of the subject of word meaning, a word
needs to be said first of all concerning both etymology and
the meaning of word elements. 'Etymology,' or the study
of a word's origin, is not central but strictly peripheral
in determining word meaning. Even the meaning of a word's
elements is not determinative of a word's own meaning.
Considerations of etymology may be helpful; but they
can also be misleading. A knowledge of the meaning
of a word's elements is nearly always helpful, with
a view toward one's general understanding of a certain word.
Nonetheless, such information simply is not decisive in
determining the actual meaning of a word itself. Definitive
context alone determines meaning." - James Coram, Copyright
Concordant Publishing Concern, Concordant.org
So, while a word's etymology and an understanding of any simpler
words that a compound word may break down into are a necessary
background for understanding a word's meaning, these are not
the definitive factors for determining meaning.
Let's look at an example to help understand how etymology
works. And what better example might there be than the word
"etymology" itself.
"Etymology - ETYMOLOGY: Middle English etimologie,
from Old French ethimologie, from Medieval Latin ethimologia,
from Latin etymologia, from Greek etumologi: etumon, true
sense of a word; see etymon + -logi, -logy." - The American
Heritage Dictionary of the English Language: Fourth Edition.
2000.
The English word etymology is a compound word that traces
back originally to the combination of two Greek words, "etumon,"
meaning, "true sense of a word" and "logia" or "logy," meaning
"science, theory, or study." So, by looking at the original
Greek root words that come together to form the English word
"etymology," we get an understanding that the basic concepts
contained in this word involve, at least originally, the idea
of "the study or science" of "the true sense of a word."
Let's look at another example using a word from the Bible.
In Romans 8:29, the apostle Paul says Jesus Christ is the
"firstborn among many brothers." The Greek word for "firstborn"
is "prototokos," (Strong's No. 4416) which is defined as follows.
4416 prototokos
from 4413 and the alternate of 5088; TDNT-6:871,965; adj
AV-firstborn 7, first begotten 2; 9
1) the firstborn
1a) of man or beast
1b) of Christ, the first born of all creation
As we can see, prototokos is a compound word derived from
two other Greek words. The Greek words that come together
to form prototokos are "protos" (Strong's No. 4413) and "tikto"
(Strong's No. 5088). Below is the definition for both of these
Greek words.
5088 tikto
a strengthened form of a primary teko tekw tek'-o (which is
used only as alternate in certain tenses); ; v
AV-bring forth 9, be delivered 5, be born 3, be in travail
1, bear 1; 19
1) to bring forth, bear, produce (fruit from the seed)
1a) of a woman giving birth
1b) of the earth bringing forth its fruits
1c) metaph. to bear, bring forth
4413 protos
contracted superlative of 4253; TDNT-6:865,965; adj
AV-first 84, chief 9, first day 2, former 2, misc 7; 104
1) first in time or place
1a) in any succession of things or persons
2) first in rank
2a) influence, honour
2b) chief
2c) principal
3) first, at the first
As we can see, "tikto" conveys the general idea of bearing
offspring or reproduction, including both in terms of animal
and plant life. "Protos" conveys the idea of the first or
chief in terms of either succession or rank. We can see from
the meanings of these two root words the relationship that
each word has to the meaning of "prototokos," which is defined
as conveying the concept, "firstborn."
However, not only does "prototokos" provide for us a good
example of etymology at work in a compound word, but it also
further exemplifies etymology because the root word "protos"
itself is a derivative of a more primitive word. In the definition
(above) for the word "protos" we see the notation that "protos"
is a "contracted superlative of 4253." Strong's No. 4253 is
the Greek word "pro," which is defined below.
4253 pro
a primary preposition; TDNT-6:683,935; prep
AV-before 44, above 2, above ... ago 1, or ever 1; 48
1) before
So, as we take a look at the English word "firstborn" in Romans
8:29, we find that it is a translation of the Greek word "prototokos,"
which traces its formation from two more basic root words,
"tikto" and "protos," of which "protos" also traces its formation
back to the even more primitive Greek root word, "pro." And
so we can see the evolution of word meaning. "Pro" conveys
the basic concept of coming "before." "Protos" conveys the
idea of "first or chief in a succession or rank." "Tikto"
conveys the idea of "offspring." And "protos" and "tikto"
come together to convey the idea of "offspring" that is "first
or chief in succession or rank."
This is essentially how etymology works and how the etymology
of a word can help inform us about its meaning. But as stated
above, while the etymology of word is informative, etymology
does not definitively determine the meaning. With that in
mind, we now move on to another factor that informs us about
the meaning of a word.
Grammar
"Grammar - 1a. The study of how words and their
component parts combine to form sentences. b. The study of
structural relationships in language or in a language,
sometimes including pronunciation, meaning, and linguistic
history. 2a. The system of inflections, syntax,
and word formation of a language. b. The system of rules
implicit in a language, viewed as a mechanism for generating
all sentences possible in that language." - The American Heritage
Dictionary of the English Language: Fourth Edition. 2000.
"Syntax - 1a. The study of the rules whereby words
or other elements of sentence structure are combined to form
grammatical sentences. b. A publication, such as a book,
that presents such rules. c. The pattern of formation of
sentences or phrases in a language. d. Such a pattern
in a particular sentence or discourse." - The American Heritage
Dictionary of the English Language: Fourth Edition. 2000.
Syntax is a specific sub-category within grammar. Grammar
and syntax both involve the study of the rules of how components
of a language, such as words, combine to convey ideas and
meaning in sentences. Grammar involves which words act as
nouns, verbs, or adjective, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions,
etc. It also involves identifying which words are the subject
and which the object of a verb. By identifying which of these
categories each word in sentence falls into, we get an understanding
of how a word is being used in a particular sentence, and
therefore, what it is meant to convey. Grammar is essential
to understanding word meaning.
"Semantics, Meaning in linguistics - The contribution
of grammar to semantic theory is by no means exhausted
by this step. For the grammatical restrictions on a word
represent, as it were, the "skeleton" of its meaning before
the "flesh" is put on by the co-occurrences. The very first
step in giving the meaning of a word is to specify its grammatical
category-noun, verb, adjective, adverb, connective, and
so forth..." - Britannica.com
There are different parts of speech such as nouns, verbs,
adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, etc. These
are extremely simple concepts to learn but understanding which
of these roles that a particular word fills is essential to
determining the meaning of a word and a sentence. However,
identifying which form of speech a word functions as in a
sentence is often quite obvious even after translations has
occurred. Other aspects of grammar may not always be so obvious,
such as the tense, voice, and mood of a verb. And verb conjugation
often has a very significant impact on what is being said
by a sentence. These things also have to be taken into consideration
but they, too, are not all that complicated.
Let's take a look at the following examples of how grammar
affects the meaning of a statement. In the following passages,
not only is the Strong's Concordance Number denoted for each
verb, but also the second number behind a verb denotes the
verb's conjugation. (Note: it is not our intention to examine
the issues discussed in the following passages in detail at
this point, but only to illustrate the significance that grammar
has on meaning. For more analysis of the specific issues discussed
in these passages, please visit our other articles on those
topics.)
1 Corinthians 7:10 And unto the married I command,
yet not I, but the Lord, Let not the wife depart (5563)
(5683) from her husband: 11 But and if she depart (5563)
(5681), let her remain unmarried, or be reconciled to
her husband: and let not the husband put away (863) (5721)
his wife.
The Greek verb for "depart" in verse 10 is "chorizo" (Strong's
No. 5563). The second number behind the verb denotes the specific
conjugation of that verb. Each conjugation number tells us
three things: verb tense (such as past, present, or future),
verb voice (such as active or passive), and verb mood (such
as infinitive, imperative, indicative). In this particular
case in 1 Corinthians 7:10, the conjugation of the verb "chorizo"
is denoted with the number 5683, which denotes that the verb
"chorizo" is in the Aorist tense, the passive voice, and the
infinitive mood.
Since this is just an example, we will focus only on one of
these grammatical concerns. Since our concern is the meaning
in the original Greek, notice that in the Greek the verb "chorizo"
is in the passive voice. The passive voice is also denoted
with a particular four-digit number, which is 5786. Here is
the definition of the passive voice.
5786 Voice-Passive - The passive voice represents the
subject as being the recipient of the action. E.g., in the
sentence, "The boy was hit by the ball, " the boy receives
the action.
As we can see from the definition, the passive voice means
that the subject is not the one who performs the verb but
instead the subject is the recipient of the action conveyed
by the verb. The definition includes the example, "The boy
was hit by the ball." In that example the boy is NOT the one
performing the "hitting." The boy is not "hitting" the ball.
Rather, although the boy is the subject, it is the ball that
is hitting him. The subject receives rather than performs
the verb. So, when 1 Corinthians 7:10 was written, the wife
was NOT performing the action of departing. As the subject
of the sentence, the wife is the one who receives the action
of being parted just as the boy was the one hit by the ball
and not the other way around. The wife is being parted. She
is not doing the parting.
In verse 11, similar grammar is used in the phrase, "if she
depart (5563) (5681)." "Chorizo" is still the verb and once
again the subject is the wife (as indicated by the female
pronoun "she"). Additionally, once again the verb is in the
passive voice, as indicated by the alternate conjugation number
5681. Like 5683, 5681 denotes a verb in the passive voice.
So, the wife is again the recipient of the verb "chorizo."
She is the one being parted, not the one doing the parting.
But for the sake of contrast, let's look at the verb tense
in verse 11 concerning the phrase, "let not the husband put
away his wife." The verb is a different Greek word. This time
the verb is "aphiemi" (Strong's No. 863) rather than "chorizo."
And likewise, the conjugation is entirely different. The number
designating the conjugation of "aphiemi" is 5721, which denotes
that "aphiemi" is in the present tense, active voice, infinitive
mood.
Unlike "chorizo," "aphiemi" is in the active rather than the
passive voice. The active voice is designated by the number
5784 and is defined as follows.
5784 Voice-Active - The active voice represents the
subject as the doer or performer of the action. e.g., in the
sentence, "The boy hit the ball, " the boy performs the action.
Notice the difference between the active and the passive voice.
In the passive voice, the subject is the recipient of the
verb as in the example, "The boy was hit by the ball." In
the active voice, the subject is performer of the verb as
in the example, "The boy hit the ball." So, in terms of the
scripture verses of 1 Corinthians 7, the original Greek was
written to indicate that the wife (in verse 10-11) was merely
the recipient of the separation while the husband (verse 11)
is the performer of the sending away of his wife.
In this very basic example, we can see how the grammar, particularly
the way a verb is rendered, is very significant to the meaning
of a statement. If we did not pay attention to the grammar
of the original language, we might think that the wife was
performing the action of separating in verses 10-11, when
in fact she is simply the recipient of an action performed
by the husband. But again, as we have said, these considerations
are not difficult and while other scenarios involving grammar
might be more complex, they are not really anything that cannot
be looked up in a basic grammar book or even a dictionary
to help us understand what a particular grammatical term such
as "passive" or "conjunction," etc. means if we are unfamiliar
with it.
Immediate Context
"Semantics, Meaning in linguistics, Meaning, structure,
and context - Foreigners in a strange country and linguists
are often confronted with the task of learning a new language...Therefore,
although at the very beginning their learning remains on the
ostensive level (trying to find out the name of this or that
kind of object), very soon they proceed to the level of
first guessing, then establishing, the meaning of words from
the contexts in which they occur." - Britannica.com
"In consideration of the subject of word meaning, a word needs
to be said first of all concerning both etymology and the
meaning of word elements...Nonetheless, such information simply
is not decisive in determining the actual meaning of a word
itself. Definitive context alone determines meaning."
- James Coram, Copyright Concordant Publishing Concern, Concordant.org
While etymology provides basic familiarity with word and grammar
provides a necessary understanding of how a word relates to
the other words in a sentence, context is the primary manner
in which the meaning of a particular word is established.
As we will see, learning the meaning of a word from its immediate
context is closely related to the next criteria. But for now,
even as indicated in the first quote above, we are discussing
how word meaning is built upon the initial step of the immediate
context in which that word occurs. And it is no doubt an absolute
fact that the meaning of any word necessarily has to make
sense in the immediate context in which it occurs.
Let's take a look at another example. In order to illustrate
how the meaning of a word is indicated by its context, we
have left the Greek word "eleutheros" (Strong's No. 1658)
un-translated in the verse below. The goal will be to demonstrate
how the meaning of this unrecognized word is indicated by
the immediate context in which it occurs.
1 Corinthians 7:39 The wife is bound by the law as
long as her husband liveth; but if her husband be dead, she
is at ELEUTHEROS to be married to whom she will; only in the
Lord.
In the middle of this verse, we have this word "eleutheros,"
which we do not recognize or know the meaning of. What can
we learn from the context? Well, we can see that "eleutheros"
is a part of a phrase that follows the conjunction "but."
This tells us that "eleutheros" is being contrasted to the
concept that occurs before the conjunction "but." This is
information provided to us by the grammar. So again, we see
the essential role that grammar has in determining word meaning.
From the context, we also see that "eleutheros" is part of
a phrase that begins with the word "if." This tells us that
"eleutheros" is connected here to a condition. From this we
understand that a wife is either "bound by the law" or "eleutheros"
depending upon "if" her husband is dead. So, this simple examination
of grammar and context, allows us to take an unknown word
like "eleutheros" and derive a working understanding that
"eleutheros" means something that contrasts with the state
of being "bound by the law."
The immediate context tells us that "eleutheros" conveys the
idea of "not being bound by the law." This is how context
is used to determine meaning.
Usage/Multiple Contexts
"We have the evidence of a word's true meaning-and therefore
of the meaning that truly satisfies such a definitive context-when
that same meaning also fits all the occurrences in which the
word appears. Due to considerations of idiom, such a meaning
may or may not fit smoothly in all its occurrences.
But if a certain meaning is cognizable in all of a word's
occurrences, while being singularly capable of satisfying
those of its contexts which seem definitive, we may be certain
(1) that such a meaning is indeed the word's true meaning,
and (2) that those contexts which we have deemed definitive,
are, in fact, definitive." - James Coram, Copyright Concordant
Publishing Concern, Concordant.org
"Language, Semantic flexibility - Not only are word
meanings somewhat different in different languages; they are
not fixed for all time in any one language. Semantic changes
take place all along (see below), and at any moment the semantic
area covered by a word is indeterminately bordered and
differs from context to context. This is a further aspect
and condition of the inherent and necessary flexibility of
language." - Britannica.com
"Semantics, Meaning in linguistics, Meaning, structure,
and context - Foreigners in a strange country and linguists
are often confronted with the task of learning a new language...Therefore,
although at the very beginning their learning remains on the
ostensive level (trying to find out the name of this or that
kind of object), very soon they proceed to the level of
first guessing, then establishing, the meaning of words from
the contexts in which they occur...Moreover, linguists
find no great difficulties in learning dead languages-e.g.,
that of the ancient Egyptians-without any contact with any
speaker, provided that a sufficiently large corpus of texts
is available and that some clues are provided to the meaning
of at least some words." - Britannica.com
"Semantics, Meaning, structure, and context - If any
more evidence concerning this point is needed, one should
remember that "pictorial" dictionaries are bound to remain
on the kindergarten level, and that the mark of a good dictionary
is the abundance of appropriate contexts. Thus, the contexts
show the concept." - Britannica.com
"Semantics, Meaning, structure, and context - The contribution
of grammar to semantic theory is by no means exhausted by
this step. For the grammatical restrictions on a word represent,
as it were, the "skeleton" of its meaning before the "flesh"
is put on by the co-occurrences...The co-occurrences then
complete the picture." - Britannica.com
"Semantics, Lexical entries - Good dictionaries offer
a variety of contexts for the items listed, but, obviously,
this is not enough. For one thing, no dictionary can list
all the co-occurrences. There must be devices to sum
up, as it were, the information revealed by the contexts.
This is the role of dictionary definitions." - Britannica.com
As the above quotes demonstrate, after determining word meaning
by immediate context, the next step is to compare a variety
of contexts (or co-occurrences) in which that word occurs.
As Britannica.com simply puts it, "the contexts show the concept."
"Semantics, Meaning in linguistics, Meaning, structure,
and context - Foreigners in a strange country and linguists
are often confronted with the task of learning a new language...Therefore,
although at the very beginning their learning remains on the
ostensive level (trying to find out the name of this or that
kind of object), very soon they proceed to the level of
first guessing, then establishing, the meaning of words from
the contexts in which they occur." - Britannica.com
Although initially, word meaning is determined by the first
context in which a person finds that word, the ultimate criterion
for word meaning is discovering a meaning that fits in all
contexts. This leads to what is known as "semantic flexibility,"
"essential meaning," and "referential meaning."
"Language, Semantic Flexibility - Not only are word
meanings somewhat different in different languages; they
are not fixed for all time in any one language. Semantic
changes take place all along (see below), and at any moment
the semantic area covered by a word is indeterminately bordered
and differs from context to context. This is a further
aspect and condition of the inherent and necessary flexibility
of language." - Britannica.com
Yet despite the fact that a word's meaning shifts, that does
not mean that the word has multiple meanings. As following
summary states, words have one singular, essential meaning.
"It is impossible for a word actually to have two or more
meanings, however varied its usages may
be. Communication would be impossible were we consistently
to adapt the policy that words may have more than one meaning,
or, to say the same thing, that they may have primary meaning,
secondary meaning, tertiary meaning, and so forth. Meaning,
that is, essence, is a singular concept."
- James Coram, Copyright Concordant Publishing Concern, Concordant.org
So, if words have one essential meaning, how is it possible
that the same word can shift in meaning depending upon the
context? The following quote explains why and how these kinds
of shifts in meaning are possible.
"It is vital to distinguish between word meaning and word
usage; that is, between denotation and connotation, or
essential meaning and referential meaning. It is true that
the same word is sometimes used to convey a
different idea in one text than in another. It does so, however,
not by inherent signification but by contextual application,
or usage...Properly speaking, then, such a word has
a plurality of references, according to its varied
usages. It does not, however, have a plurality of intrinsic
significations or essential meanings. A word's essential
meaning is also its universal meaning...Speaking loosely,
we may say that a word has two or more 'meanings' in that
in one place it is used to refer to one idea and in another
place is used to refer to a different idea...Such a concept,
however, speaks of referential meaning, not
essential meaning." - James Coram, Copyright
Concordant Publishing Concern, Concordant.org
As the above quote states, sometimes two situations in which
a word occurs are so diverse that at first it may not be easy
to see how the same word can be applied to both. However,
this "semantic flexibility" occurs because the essential meaning
of a word is broad enough to apply to a variety of much more
specific situations. Effectively, the broad meaning can break
down into more particular nuances. One nuance can seem quite
different from another while both share the same, larger essential
concept. This does not change the fact that every word has
a single, broad meaning. We simply must understand that the
basic concept conveyed by a word is broad enough to include
even diverse applications.
"Due to idiomatic differences between the original and the
receptor language (especially scope of usage or idiomatic
range), in translation it is often necessary to use a number
of synonyms or other variants to translate a single word in
the original. These variants may be quite different from
each other in certain obvious respects. Even so, they
often share a common central idea among themselves, and, in
any case, always correspond to the essential idea of the original
expression." - James Coram, Copyright Concordant Publishing
Concern, Concordant.org
This is why dictionaries often contain multiple definitions.
They are simply summarizing the more common nuances into which
a word's essential meaning is often applied.
"Semantics, Meaning, structure, and context - If any
more evidence concerning this point is needed, one should
remember that "pictorial" dictionaries are bound to remain
on the kindergarten level, and that the mark of a good dictionary
is the abundance of appropriate contexts. Thus, the contexts
show the concept." - Britannica.com
"Semantics, Lexical Entries - Good dictionaries
offer a variety of contexts for the items listed, but,
obviously, this is not enough. For one thing, no dictionary
can list all the co-occurrences. There must be devices
to sum up, as it were, the information revealed by the contexts.
This is the role of dictionary definitions." - Britannica.com
Here is where the principle of harmony comes back into play
on the microscopic level. Perhaps the central goal in determining
word meaning (and therefore the central goal in translation
as well) is to discover that singular, basic meaning of a
word common to all the occurrences of that word. Once that
occurs, then we can discover the nuances of meaning contained
in that general root concept. If every time a word occurs
it has an entirely different and unrelated meaning, then determining
word meaning would be nearly impossible and so would translation
because the primary means of accurately establishing meaning
is by comparing the various occurrences of a particular word.
In this way, even though a word may be used a multitude of
times and in vastly different contexts, we do not end up with
a list of 20 distinct meanings for a single word. In point
of fact, the more meanings that a word has, the less meaning
that it truly has at all. The whole purpose of a word is to
express a particular concept distinct from other concepts
expressed by other words.
Thus, translators or interpreters that assert either by their
teaching or practice that the meaning of a word in one passage
should be kept isolated and distinct from its meaning in another,
are really acting in direct opposition to both translation
and the entire science of determining meaning. Consequently,
such persons merely dawn the guise of translators and interpreters
in order to obfuscate and deny the essential processes of
determining meaning. Translators and interpreters of this
kind should be rejected.
Having said that, we will now return to the subject of hand,
which is an examination of how meaning is ultimately determined
by a comparison of a word in multiple contexts. At this point
we are ready to take a look at another example.
In our previous segment, we saw how the context of 1 Corinthians
7:39 indicated that the Greek word "eleutheros" (Strong's
No. 1658) meant a state of being "not bound by the Law." 1
Corinthians 7:39 provides for us a definition through the
immediate context. As the quotes above state, word meaning
is initially determined by immediate context, but it is also
necessary to determine a word's meaning by a comparison to
other contexts in which the word occurs. For this reason,
we will take a look at the Greek word "eleutheros" in the
other contexts that it occurs in the Bible to see what those
additional contexts tell us about the meaning we initially
discovered from the immediate context of 1 Corinthians 7:39.
The following 16 passages contain all 23 New Testament occurrences
of the Greek word "eleutheros."
Matthew 18:24-26 - "eleutheros" is contrasted to being obligated
to pay taxes to rulers.
John 8:33-36 - "eleutheros" is contrasted to being in bondage
or servitude to other men.
Romans 6:20 - "eleutheros" is contrasted to being in servitude.
Romans 7:3 - "eleutheros" is contrasted to being under a law.
1 Corinthians 7:21-22 - "eleutheros" is contrasted to being
in servitude.
1 Corinthians 7:39 - "eleutheros" is contrasted to being in
bondage to a law.
1 Corinthians 9:1, 19 - "eleutheros" is contrasted with servitude.
1 Corinthians 12:13 - "eleutheros" is contrasted with being
in bonds.
Galatians 3:28 - "eleutheros" is contrasted with being in
bonds.
Galatians 4:22-31 - "eleutheros" is contrasted with being
in bonds.
Ephesians 6:8 - "eleutheros" is contrasted with being in bonds.
Colossians 3:11 - "eleutheros" is contrasted with being in
bonds.
1 Peter 2:16 - "eleutheros" is associated with being servants
of God.
Revelation 6:15 - "eleutheros" is contrasted with being in
bonds.
Revelation 13:16 - "eleutheros" is contrasted with being in
bonds.
Revelation 19:18 - "eleutheros" is contrasted with being in
bonds.
This survey allows us to compare what we found out about the
meaning of "eleutheros" from the context of 1 Corinthians
7:39 to the meaning of "eleutheros" in the other 22 instances
it occurs in the New Testament. Our initial examination of
1 Corinthians 7:39 indicated that "eleutheros" was a state
of not being in bondage to the Law. This represented one specific
nuance in the meaning of "eleutheros." However, by surveying
all of the available biblical contexts for this word, we found
that the broader meaning of "eleutheros" is a state of freedom
from servitude or bondage in general, not just specifically
from the Law. This is a simplified example of "semantic flexibility"
in which the broader meaning of "eleutheros" is freedom and
in specific instances "eleutheros" can mean freedom from slavery
or servitude, freedom from the law, freedom from paying taxes,
freedom from obligations to men, etc. Here we see the broader
essential meaning as well as the more specific nuances of
the various referential meanings.
In summary, we see that words generally have one essential
meaning. That meaning is broad enough to adapt and shift to
fit a variety of diverse circumstances, which are known as
referential meanings. Each context typically expresses a referential,
more specific nuance of the broader essential meaning of a
word. The essential meaning is established only by a sufficient
examination of a word in multiple contexts. And as we have
seen, although this kind of survey work can take some effort,
it is still work that any layperson can do.
Translation Contexts
Translation contexts are really just a very peculiar subtype
within the larger category of contexts that we've already
covered. However, translations offer additional help in determining
meaning because the foreign translation is itself a definition
of the unknown word. Perhaps the most prominent example is
the Rosetta Stone.
"Rosetta Stone - ancient Egyptian stone bearing
inscriptions in several languages and scripts; their decipherment
led to the understanding of hieroglyphic writing...Inscribed
in two languages, Egyptian and Greek, and three writing systems,
hieroglyphics, demotic script (a cursive form of Egyptian
hieroglyphics), and the Greek alphabet, it provided a key
to the translation of Egyptian hieroglyphic writing...He
also established that the hieroglyphic text of the Rosetta
Stone was a translation from the Greek, not, as had been
thought, the reverse. The work of these two men established
the basis for the translation of all future Egyptian hieroglyphic
texts." - Britannica.com
The Rosetta Stone was an inscribed stone containing writing
in Egyptian and Greek. The Greek text allowed translators
to determine the meaning of the previously un-deciphered Egyptian
hieroglyphics. Because translators knew that the Greek was
a translation of the Egyptian text, the meaning of the Egyptian
hieroglyphs could be determined by the corresponding Greek
words. The Greek words provided a definition for the unknown
Egyptians words.
Similarly, since the New Testament is written in Greek and
the Old Testament is written in Hebrew, whenever the New Testament
quotes the Old Testament, the texts provide a definition for
each other by means of the corresponding words from each language.
Let's look at an example.
1 Timothy 1:9 Knowing this, that the law is not
made for a righteous man, but for the lawless and disobedient,
for the ungodly and for sinners, for unholy and profane, for
murderers of fathers and murderers of mothers, for manslayers,
10 For whoremongers, for them that defile themselves with
mankind (733), for menstealers, for liars, for perjured
persons, and if there be any other thing that is contrary
to sound doctrine.
First, here in 1 Timothy 1, Paul refers to the Law of Moses
in verse 9. Then he states that the Law of Moses is for persons
who do certain things. Then he lists several examples including
a few peculiar ones, "murderers of fathers," "manslayers,"
"menstealers," and among these "arsenokoites" (men who lie
with men.) Paul is saying all of these things are listed in
the Law of Moses. So, it is no surprise that we do, in fact,
find all 4 of these peculiar phrases as crimes in the Law
of Moses.
"Murderers Of Fathers And Murderers Of Mothers"
Exodus 21:15 And he that smiteth his father, or
his mother, shall be surely put to death.
"Manslayers"
Numbers 35:16 And if he smite him with an instrument
of iron, so that he die, he is a murderer: the murderer shall
surely be put to death. 17 And if he smite him with throwing
a stone, wherewith he may die, and he die, he is a murderer:
the murderer shall surely be put to death. 18 Or if
he smite him with an hand weapon of wood, wherewith he may
die, and he die, he is a murderer: the murderer shall surely
be put to death.
"Menstealers"
Deuteronomy 24:7 If a man be found stealing any
of his brethren of the children of Israel, and maketh merchandise
of him, or selleth him; then that thief shall die; and
thou shalt put evil away from among you.
"Men Who Lie with Men as with a Woman"
Leviticus 20:13 If a man also lie with mankind,
as he lieth with a woman, both of them have committed an abomination:
they shall surely be put to death; their blood shall be
upon them.
In terms of our current discussion of translation, we might
take for our example Paul's use of the phrase, "them that
defile themselves with mankind." In the original Greek, this
entire English phrase is one word, "arsenokoites" (Strong's
No. 733). In determining the meaning of this Greek word, we
can break it down into its two more basic component words
"arrhen" (Strong's No. 730) and "koite" (Strong's No. 2845),
as we discussed in a previous section concerning etymology.
The word "arrhen" means "a male," such as in Matthew 19:4
and Galatians 3:28. And "koite" means "a place for laying
down, resting, sleeping in" such as in Luke 11:7. More specifically,
"koite" refers to sexual intercourse that occurs in a marriage
bed such as seen in Hebrews 13:4 and even Romans 9:10, which
describes how Rebecca conceived of Jacob and Esau from Isaac.
At this point, we have learned something about the meaning
of "arsenokoites" both by breaking it down etymologically
and looking at other contexts, which involve the two component
words. From these methods, we see that the meaning of "arsenokoites"
has something to do with "men" and "lying down" including
the idea of how a man normally lays with a women in sexual
intercourse.
However, because we know that Paul is stating these prohibitions
can be found in the Law of Moses, we can also learn more about
the meaning of this word by comparing it to its Hebrew counterpart.
As seen above, there can be little doubt that Paul is referring
back to the fornication laws in Leviticus 20, where "a man
lying with a man as with a woman" is listed among other types
of prohibited items. Here again is Leviticus 20:13, only this
time each word is denoted with its Strong's Concordance number.
Leviticus 20:13 If a man (0376) also lie
(07901) with mankind (02145), as he lieth (04904) with
a woman (0802) both of them have committed an abomination:
they shall surely be put to death; their blood shall be upon
them.
We mentioned already that the Greek word "arsenokoites" used
by Paul in 1 Timothy 1:9-10 involved the idea of "men," and
"lying down" even as men normally lie down with women in a
marriage bed and sexual intercourse. We also saw that Paul
himself states that he is referring back to the prohibitions
found in the Law of Moses. Here we find a prohibition in Leviticus
20:13 that specifically involves all of these same concepts
of a "man" lying with "men" even as men normally "lie with
women." In fact, the word for "lieth" in the phrase "as he
lieth with a woman" is the Hebrew word "mishkab" (Strong's
No. 4904), which means "a lying down" including specifically
"sexual contact" just as the Greek word "koite" includes.
So, similar to the Rosetta Stone, knowing that the Greek wording
in 1 Timothy 1 corresponds to Hebrew wording in the Old Testament,
we gain additional insight into the meaning of the word "arsenokoite"
because the already defined Hebrew words act as a definition
for this Greek term. Consequently, when a translation context
is available, it is a valuable indicator of the meaning of
the word in question.
Summary
Our previous segment concludes the 5 criteria used by translators
when determining word meaning. As we've stated above, the
determination of word meaning involves a scientific process,
known as semantics.
"Semantics - also called semiotics, semology, or semasiology,
the philosophical and scientific study of meaning...The
word semantics has ultimately prevailed as a name for the
doctrine of meaning, in particular, of linguistic meaning."
- Britannica.com
"Semantics - 1. Linguistics The study
or science of meaning in language." - The American Heritage
Dictionary of the English Language: Fourth Edition. 2000.
"Semantics - in general, the study of the relationship
between words and meanings. The empirical study of word meanings
and sentence meanings in existing languages is a branch of
linguistics." - The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
2001.
The empirical methods for determining word meaning are:
1.)Etymology.
2.) Grammar.
3.)Immediate Context.
4.)Usage/Multiple Contexts.
5.) Translation Contexts.
And by understanding these simple, easy-to-understand processes
for determining the meaning of a word, we have taken the mystery
out of translation and interpretation of the Bible. In doing
so, we have not only reaffirmed the principle of sola scriptura
by removing the necessity for an authoritative interpreter
who presides over the very meaning of scripture for laypersons,
but we have provided some groundwork empowering individuals
to better see the clarity of God's Word for themselves. Throughout
the studies on our website, you will see us employing these
same 5 criteria as we examine the meaning of words and critical
texts during our investigation of Biblical doctrine.
Before we close, we would like to make one final argument
concerning the suggested necessity for a scholar who is fluent
in Greek or Hebrew in order to interpret the Bible.
If layperson needs the aid of a scholar who is fluent in Greek
or Hebrew in order to properly understand the Bible, then
the original scholars who provided the English translation
should suffice. In other words, if speaking Hebrew or Greek
is required in order to interpret the Bible correctly, then
the men who translated the Bible into English are indeed qualified
as interpreters, because it was their fluent understanding
of Hebrew and Greek that allowed them to convey the meaning
of those original texts to English-speaking audiences.
Thus, the argument that we need someone who reads Hebrew or
Greek to interpret the meaning of scripture for us is effectively
undermined by the fact that the translators themselves are
by definition qualified interpreters by virtue of the fact
that they were using their fluent understanding of Hebrew
or Greek. So, even if a correct interpretation for English
speakers required the aid of someone who spoke Hebrew or Greek
to enlighten us about the meaning of the original language,
the translators themselves fill this role and so we already
have such an interpreter and would not need any additional
interpreters along these lines.
And this leads us back to the usefulness and function of Bible
Lexicons.
"Semantics, Meaning, structure, and context - If any
more evidence concerning this point is needed, one should
remember that "pictorial" dictionaries are bound to remain
on the kindergarten level, and that the mark of a good
dictionary is the abundance of appropriate contexts. Thus,
the contexts show the concept." - Britannica.com
"Semantics, Lexical Entries - Good dictionaries
offer a variety of contexts for the items listed, but,
obviously, this is not enough. For one thing, no dictionary
can list all the co-occurrences. There must be devices
to sum up, as it were, the information revealed by the contexts.
This is the role of dictionary definitions." - Britannica.com
"Language, Lexical meaning - The other component of
sentence meaning is word meaning, the individual meanings
of the words in a sentence, as lexical items. The concept
of word meaning is a familiar one. Dictionaries
list words and in one way or another state their meanings."
- Britannica.com
The function of a dictionary (also called a lexicon) is to
sum up the findings produced by the application of the various
5 criteria for determining word meaning. Lexicons, while not
infallible, are helpful because the interpreters have already
summed up for us their findings in terms of the essential
and referential meanings for each word as determined by their
survey of the multiple contexts in which a word has occurred.
Effectively, the work has already been done, but since neither
a lexicon nor a particular translation is infallible, all
that is necessary is for the layperson to double check the
work for critical words in a passage in light of these 5 criteria.
In this way, we will follow the practice of the apostles themselves
who were able to double check the translation work of the
scholars who produced the Septuagint (the Greek Old Testament),
which the apostles often used when supporting New Testament
doctrine.
In closing, there is no need for laypersons to be dazzled
in awe and confusion when faced with the task of properly
understanding word meaning in the Bible. Unlike the Israelites
in Exodus crying out to Moses before the fiery appearance
of God on the mountain, there is no need for us to cry out
to scholars concerning interpretation, "You go up for us and
figure this out. It is too much for us." Translation and word
meaning are not as immense or frightening as that famous event,
not by any means.
There are simple, sufficient tools and criteria available
that allow all men to see the clear, intended meaning of scripture.
By understanding those criteria and making use of the tools
that are available to us, we can reaffirm the principle of
sola scripture, and discard the suggested need for
an authoritative interpreter to preside over the meaning of
scripture for us. Likewise, we can reaffirm that the meaning
of God's Word is robust and resilient so that mistranslations
are easy to remedy and discard any scholarly rhetoric, which
suggests that God's meaning is fragile and fleeting, that
a correct interpretation of the text is incredibly difficult,
unsure, and precarious, and by implication that the text of
the Bible is by its very nature prone to misinterpretation.
Finally, Christians can confidently proclaim that, unlike
the Koran, translations of the Bible can reliably preserve
God's intended meaning and can be reliable for establishing
doctrine.
We leave this article with a restatement of a comment from
earlier in this article. It is the goal of interpretation
and translation to preserve meaning reliably. Either this
concept is possible or it is not. Those who reject that translations
of the Bible can be reliable for accurate understanding necessarily
hold that reliable interpretation and translation are not
possible. They are effectively anti-translationists and anti-interpretationists.
Furthermore, those who reject that word meaning is determined
by the application of the 5 scientific criteria for determining
word meaning (listed above) are also effectively anti-translationists
and anti-interpretationists. While offering themselves in
the role of interpreters and translators, they actually work
against the goal of determining word meaning and their work
is in opposition to the scientific criteria used to determine
meaning. In all cases they will end up undermining either
that the meaning can be known at all or the scientific, empirical
methods for determining meaning. They are nothing more than
tricksters or con artists promising to deliver something not
only that they themselves assert cannot be done but something
which they themselves work against - namely, an explanation
intended meaning of the text to their audience. In reality,
they work to obscure the meaning of the text, to place determination
of word meaning beyond reach, and to render the scientific
criteria for determining word meaning null and void. Such
persons should be rejected.
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