Basic
Worldview:
104
Why Christianity?
Propositional
Religions 3 - Jainism, Taoism
Propositional
Religions 1 - Deism, Pantheism, and Naturalism
Propositional Religions 2 - Intro,
Hinduism, Buddhism
Propositional Religions 3 - Jainism,
Taoism
Propositional Religions 4 - Shintoism,
Confucianism
Propositional Religions 5 - Sikhism
Propositional Religions 6 - Babism
and Baha'ism, Zoroastrianism
Propositional Religions 7 - Neopaganism,
Mysticism (Syncretism)
Propositional Religions 8 - Mysticism
Propositional Religions 9 - Mysticism, Gnosticism, Neoplatonism
Introduction | Section 1
| Section 2 | Section
3
Jainism
As usual, we will begin our examination of Jainism with a
look at its origins.
"Jainism - religious system of India practiced by about
5,000,000 persons. Jainism, Ajivika, and Buddhism arose
in the 6th cent. B.C. as protests against the overdeveloped
ritualism of Hinduism, particularly its sacrificial cults,
and the authority of the Veda. Jaina tradition teaches
that a succession of 24 tirthankaras (saints) originated the
religion. The last, Vardhamana, called Mahavira [the great
hero] and Jina [the victor], seems to be historical."
- The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2001.
"Jainism - a religion of India originating in the
6th century B.C. and teaching liberation of the soul by right
knowledge, right faith, and right conduct." - Merriam-Webster's
Online Dictionary
"Jainism - An ascetic religion of India, founded
in the sixth century B.C., that teaches the immortality and
transmigration of the soul and denies the existence of a perfect
or supreme being." - The American Heritage Dictionary
of the English Language: Fourth Edition. 2000.
"Jainism - Beginning in the 7th-5th century BCE,
Jainism evolved into a cultural system that has made significant
contributions to Indian philosophy and logic, art and architecture,
mathematics, astronomy and astrology, and literature. Along
with Hinduism and Buddhism, it is one of the three most ancient
Indian religious traditions still in existence." - Britannica.com
"Jainism - While often employing concepts shared
with Hinduism and Buddhism, the result of a common cultural
and linguistic background, the Jain tradition must be regarded
as an independent phenomenon. It is an integral part of
South Asian religious belief and practice, but it is not
a Hindu sect or Buddhist heresy, as earlier scholars believed."
- Britannica.com
"Jainism - Jainism originated in the 7th-5th century
BCE in the Ganges basin of eastern India, the scene
of intense religious speculation and activity at that time.
Buddhism also appeared in this region, as did other belief
systems that renounced the world and opposed the ritualistic
Brahmanic schools whose prestige derived from their claim
of purity and their ability to perform the traditional rituals
and sacrifices and to interpret their meaning. These new religious
perspectives promoted asceticism, the abandonment of ritual,
domestic and social action, and the attainment of gnosis (illumination)
in an attempt to win, through one's own efforts, freedom from
repeated rebirth." - Britannica.com
"Jainism - The first Jain figure for whom there
is reasonable historical evidence is Parshvanatha (or Parshva),
a renunciant teacher who may have lived in the 7th century
BCE and founded a community based upon the abandonment
of worldly concerns. Jain tradition regards him as the
23rd Tirthankara (literally, "Ford-maker," i.e., one who
leads the way across the stream of rebirths to salvation)
of the current age (kalpa). The 24th and last Tirthankara
of this age was Vardhamana, who is known by the epithet Mahavira
("Great Hero") and is believed to have been the last teacher
of "right" knowledge, faith, and practice. Although traditionally
dated to 599-527 BCE, Mahavira must be regarded as a close
contemporary of the Buddha (traditionally believed to have
lived in 563-483 BCE but who probably flourished about a century
later). The legendary accounts of Mahavira's life preserved
by the Jain scriptures provides the basis for his biography
and enable some conclusions to be formulated about the nature
of the early community he founded. Mahavira, like the Buddha,
was the son of a chieftain of the Kshatriya (warrior)
class. At age 30 he renounced his princely status to take
up the ascetic life. Although he was accompanied for a
time by the eventual founder of the Ajivika sect, Goshala
Maskariputra, Mahavira spent the next 12 1/2 years following
a path of solitary and intense asceticism. He then converted
11 disciples (called ganadharas), all of whom were originally
Brahmans. Two of these disciples, Indrabhuti Gautama and Sudharman,
both of whom survived Mahavira, are regarded as the founders
of the historical Jain monastic community, and a third, Jambu,
is believed to be the last person of the current age to gain
enlightenment. Mahavira is believed to have died at Pavapuri,
near modern Patna." - Britannica.com
The above quotations quickly demonstrate a number of similarities
between Jainism and Buddhism. For one, both religions were
started by men who left positions of prominence in their families
and in society at around the age of 30 during the same century
of Indian history. Both religions were reactions against similar
aspects of Hinduism, including the authority of the Veda (Hindu's
sacred scripture). Both founders Vardhamana (Jainism) and
Gautama (Buddhism) are said to have achieved enlightenment
(Vardhamana at approximately 42, Gautama at 35.) Both religions
center on the liberation of the soul from the process of rebirth.
Additionally, both Jainism and Buddhism hold that the world
is eternal and uncreated and repeats in a cyclical manner.
"Jainism - The Jain world is eternal and uncreated.
Its constituent elements, the five basics of reality (astikayas),
are soul, matter, space, the principles of motion, and the
arrest of motion; for the Digambaras there is a sixth substance,
time. These elements are eternal and indestructible, but
their conditions change constantly, manifesting three characteristics:
arising, stability, and falling away. On this basis, Jainism
claims to provide a more realistic analysis of the world and
its complexities than Hinduism or Buddhism." - Britannica.com
"Jainism - Time, according to the Jains, is
eternal and formless. It is understood as a wheel with
12 spokes (ara), the equivalent of ages, six of which form
an ascending arc and six a descending one. In the ascending
arc (utsarpini), humans progress in knowledge, age, stature,
and happiness, while in the descending arc (avasarpini) they
deteriorate. The two cycles joined together make one rotation
of the wheel of time, which is called a kalpa. These kalpas
repeat themselves without beginning or end." - Britannica.com
"Jainism - Jaina tradition teaches that a succession
of 24 tirthankaras (saints) originated the religion. The last,
Vardhamana, called Mahavira [the great hero] and Jina
[the victor], seems to be historical. He preached a
rigid asceticism and solicitude for all life as a means of
escaping the cycle of rebirth, or the transmigration of
souls. Thus released from the rule of karma, the total consequences
of past acts, the soul attains nirvana, and hence salvation."
- The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2001.
Despite the fact that surviving documents date from the 5th
century A.D., nearly 1000 years after Vardhamana's life (6th
century B.C.), historical sources on the origin, founder,
and teachings of Jainism are adequate within our requirements
for historicity. And so, we can accept Vardhamana was as an
actual figure who lived and taught from roughly the 6th century
B.C.
"Prakrit literature - The sacred texts (Siddhanta
or Agama) of the two main sects of the Jains employed
three types of Prakrit. The oldest sutras of the Svetambara
sect are written in Ardha-Magadhi, while later books are in
Maharastri. The Svetambara canon, written in verse and
prose, received its final form in A.D. 454. The sacred
books of the Digambara sect are written in Savraseni. An important
source of knowledge of Prakrit is the Sanskrit drama. Kalidasa
is included among many dramatists, who, in order to obtain
a realistic effect, had the common people in their plays speak
in Prakrit. See Sanskrit literature." - The Columbia Encyclopedia,
Sixth Edition. 2001.
"Jainism - The Jains developed their own legendary
history, the Deeds of the 63 Illustrious Men, which Western
scholars call the Universal History. The most important
figures in this history are the 24 Tirthankaras, perfected
human beings who appear from time to time to preach and embody
the faith." - Britannica.com
"Jainism - Jain canonical scriptures do not belong
to a single period, nor is any text free from later revision
or additions. The sacred literature, transmitted orally, was
first systematized in a council at Patna about the end of
the 4th century BCE, of which little can be said, and
again in two later councils at Mathura (early 3rd century
CE) and Valabhi. The fourth and last council, at Valabhi
in the mid-5th century, is considered the source of the existing
Shvetambara canon, though some commentators insist that
the present version comes from the Mathura council." - Britannica.com
"Jainism - The Shvetambaras embrace an extensive
agama (Sanskrit: "tradition," or "received teachings"; i.e.,
collection of canonical texts) as the repository of their
tradition. Based upon what are believed to be discourses
by Mahavira that were compiled by his disciples, this canon
preserves his teachings in an imperfect way, since it
has been subject to both interpolation and loss throughout
the ages." - Britannica.com
"Jainism - The Bhadrabahu, traditionally recognized
as the last Jain sage to know the contents of the Purvas,
is thought to be the author of the Niryuktis, the earliest
commentaries on the Jain canonical texts. These concise,
metrical commentaries, written in Prakrit, gave rise to an
expanded corpus of texts called Bhashya s and Curnis. Composed
between the 4th and the 7th century, these texts contain
many ancient Jain legends and historical traditions and a
large number of popular stories that support Jain doctrine...Later
commentaries by Virasena (in the 8th century) and his disciple
Jinasena (in the 9th century) on the Kashayaprabhrita are
also highly respected by Digambaras." - Britannica.com
"Jainism - The consolidation of the Shvetambara-Digambara
division was probably the result of a series of councils held
to codify and preserve the Jain scriptures, which had existed
as oral tradition long after Mahavira's death. Of the councils
recorded in Jain history, the last one, held at Valabhi in
Saurashtra (in modern Gujarat) in either 453 or 456 CE, without
Digambara participation, codified the Shvetambara canon that
is still in use. The Digambara monastic community denounced
the codification, and the schism between the two communities
became irrevocable." - Britannica.com
It should also be noted that according to Britannica.com Jainists
agree that there will come a point in time when their teaching
is completely lost. Though, they are uncertain to what extent
their ancient teaching is already corrupted and lost, they
do admit that they no longer have the original, authenticated
teachings of their founders.
"Jainism - The original, unadulterated teachings
of the Tirthankaras , the Purvas, are said to have been contained
in 14 ancient, or "prior" (purva) texts, which are now lost.
Shvetambaras and Digambaras agree that a time will come
when the teachings of the Tirthankaras will be completely
lost; Jainism will then disappear from the earth and reappear
at an appropriate point in the next time cycle (kalpa).
The two sects disagree, however, about the extent to which
the corruption and loss of the Tirthankaras' teachings has
already occurred. Consequently, the texts for each sect differ."
- Britannica.com
This admitted loss and corruption of their authoritative scripture
and teaching causes some problems for the acceptance and evaluation
of Jainism. Since, according to their own theological view,
our understanding of the world must become less and less reliable
and accurate as we proceed away from the origin of Jainism
in this cycle it becomes impossible to have any confidence
in the correctness of the currently available understanding
of Jainism. This is further complicated by the fact that we
are now 2500 years removed from the origin of the supposed
authentic Jainist teaching.
"Jainism - For the Jains all knowledge short of
omniscience is flawed. Because reality is characterized by
arising, change, and decay, as opposed to simple permanence
(for the Hindus) and impermanence (for the Buddhists), the
Jains developed an epistemological system based on seven perspectives
(naya). This system, anekanta-vada, "the many-pointed
doctrine," takes into account the provisional nature of
mundane knowledge. To gain some approximation to reality,
a judgment must ideally be framed in accord with all seven
perspectives." - Britannica.com
In order to compensate for this corruption of their teaching
Jainists have developed a method of knowing (epistemological
system), which attempts to take this decay into account and
provide an approximation of reality. However, given the Jainist
view that as the cycle progresses Jainism will ultimately
be lost, it seems that this system is destined to fail. And
because Jains are not certain how far we are into this impending
corruption we currently are, it is possible that Jainist epistemology
is already be past the point of being able to provide a reliable
approximation of reality.
Addition complications for verifying the accuracy of Jainism
comes from its dependency upon subjective experience as a
key part of the process by which one comes to acquire enlightenment.
Other aspects of Jainism also link this religion to India
and Hindu-related religions as the following quotes all confirm.
"Jainism - Jaina tradition teaches that a succession
of 24 tirthankaras (saints) originated the religion. The last,
Vardhamana, called Mahavira [the great hero] and Jina
[the victor], seems to be historical. He preached a
rigid asceticism and solicitude for all life as a means of
escaping the cycle of rebirth, or the transmigration of
souls. Thus released from the rule of karma, the total consequences
of past acts, the soul attains nirvana, and hence salvation."
- The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2001.
"Jainism - a religion of India originating in
the 6th century B.C. and teaching liberation of the soul
by right knowledge, right faith, and right conduct." -
Merriam-Webster's Online Dictionary
"Jainism - An ascetic religion of India, founded
in the sixth century B.C., that teaches the immortality and
transmigration of the soul and denies the existence of
a perfect or supreme being." - The American Heritage Dictionary
of the English Language: Fourth Edition. 2000.
"Jainism - a religion of India that teaches a path
to spiritual purity and enlightenment through a disciplined
mode of life founded upon the tradition of ahimsa, nonviolence
to all living creatures." - Britannica.com
"Jainism - The name Jainism derives from the
Sanskrit verb ji, "to conquer." It refers to the ascetic battle
that it is believed Jain renunciants (monks and nuns)
must fight against the passions and bodily senses to gain
omniscience and purity of soul or enlightenment. The most
illustrious of those few individuals who have achieved enlightenment
are called Jina (literally, "Conqueror"), and the tradition's
monastic and lay adherents are called Jain ("Follower of the
Conquerors"), or Jaina. This term came to replace a more ancient
designation, Nirgrantha ("Bondless"), originally applied to
renunciants only." - Britannica.com
"Jainism - Even though Jain doctrine holds that
no one can achieve liberation in this corrupt time, the Jain
religious goal is the complete perfection and purification
of the soul. This, they believe, occurs only when the
soul is in a state of eternal liberation from corporeal
bodies. Liberation of the soul is impeded by the accumulation
of karmans, bits of material, generated by a person's actions,
that attach themselves to the soul and consequently bind it
to physical bodies through many births. This has the effect
of thwarting the full self-realization and freedom of the
soul. As a result, Jain renunciants do not seek immediate
enlightenment; instead, through disciplined and meritorious
practice of nonviolence, they pursue a human rebirth that
will bring them nearer to that state. To understand how
the Jains address this problem, it is first necessary to consider
the Jain conception of reality." - Britannica.com
"Jainism - Because of karman a soul is imprisoned
in a succession of bodies and passes through various stages
of spiritual development before becoming free from all karmic
bondage. These stages of development (gunasthanas)
involve progressive manifestations of the innate faculties
of knowledge and power and are accompanied by decreasing
sinfulness and increasing purity." - Britannica.com
"Jainism - In Jain thought, four stages of perception
Ñobservation, will to recognize, determination, and impressionÑlead
to subjective cognition (matijnana), the first of five kinds
of knowledge (jnana). The second kind, shrutajnana, derives
from the scriptures and general information. Both are mediated
cognition, based on external conditions perceived by the senses.
In addition there are three kinds of immediate knowledgeÑavadhi
(supersensory perception), manahparyaya (reading the thoughts
of others), and kevala (omniscience). Kevala is necessarily
accompanied by freedom from karmic obstruction and by direct
experience of the soul's pure form unblemished by attachment
to matter. Omniscience, the foremost attribute of a liberated
jiva, is the emblem of its purity; thus, a liberated soul,
such as a Tirthankara, is called a kevalin ("possessor
of omniscience"). However, not all kevalins are Tirthankaras:
becoming a Tirthankara requires the development of a particular
type of karmic destiny. For the Jains all knowledge short
of omniscience is flawed. Because reality is characterized
by arising, change, and decay, as opposed to simple permanence
(for the Hindus) and impermanence (for the Buddhists), the
Jains developed an epistemological system based on seven perspectives
(naya). This system, anekanta-vada, "the many-pointed
doctrine," takes into account the provisional nature of
mundane knowledge. To gain some approximation to reality,
a judgment must ideally be framed in accord with all seven
perspectives. According to Jainism, yoga, the ascetic
physical and meditative discipline of the monk, is the means
to attain omniscience and thus moksha, or liberation. Yoga
is the cultivation of true knowledge of reality, faith
in the teachings of the Tirthankaras, and pure conduct; it
is thus intimately connected to the Three Jewels (ratnatraya)
of right knowledge, right faith, and right practice (respectively,
samyagjnana, samyagdarshana, and samyakcaritra)." - Britannica.com
Like Hinduism and Buddhism, Jainism focuses on the transcendence
of the soul from the material world through the process of
enlightenment. Note also the dependence upon "subjective cognition"
and personal meditation through yoga as an essential means
of achieving enlightenment and the liberation of the soul
from the material world.
And no study on ancient Indian religions would be complete
without mentioning Ajivika, yet another contemporary of Buddhism
and Jainism.
"Ajivika - religious sect of medieval India, once of
major importance. The Ajivikas were an ascetic, atheistic,
anti-Brahmanical community whose pessimistic doctrines are
related to those of Jainism. Its founder, Gosala (d. c.484
B.C.), was, it is said, a friend of Mahavira, the founder
of Jainism. Gosala denied that a man's actions could influence
the process of transmigration, which proceeded according to
a rigid pattern, controlled in the smallest detail by an impersonal
cosmic principle, Niyati, or destiny. After a period of prosperity
under Asoka, the sect rapidly declined and only retained
local importance in SE India, where it survived until the
14th cent." - The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
2001.
"Jainism - Mahavira, like the Buddha, was the son
of a chieftain of the Kshatriya (warrior) class. At
age 30 he renounced his princely status to take up the ascetic
life. Although he was accompanied for a time by the eventual
founder of the Ajivika sect, Goshala Maskariputra, Mahavira
spent the next 121/2 years following a path of solitary and
intense asceticism. He then converted 11 disciples (called
ganadharas), all of whom were originally Brahmans. Two
of these disciples, Indrabhuti Gautama and Sudharman, both
of whom survived Mahavira, are regarded as the founders of
the historical Jain monastic community, and a third, Jambu,
is believed to be the last person of the current age to gain
enlightenment. Mahavira is believed to have died at Pavapuri,
near modern Patna." - Britannica.com
So, we see from the various quotes that we have looked at
in this section that religious movements lead by men of upper
class status who left their estates and became enlightened
at around the ages of 30-40 years old were not even unique
in India during the 6th century B.C. Gautama and Vardhamana,
the founders of Buddhism and Jainism, were just such men,
with Vardhamana either being Gautama's contemporary or just
preceeding him. In either case, the beginnings of these two
or three religions within India under similar circumstances,
with similar beliefs, from the same parent religion, at the
same time indicates that their origination are more likely
the result of cultural trends than the coincidental acquisition
of higher spiritual truths by several people at virtually
the same time.
Concerning Jainism specifically, all of these factors make
it impossible to objectively verify in any reasonable manner
whether the claims of Vardhamana are at all accurate. We have
seen that his views, like those of Buddhists, are highly dependent
upon subjective, personal experience rather than objective
evidence. How are we to know whether Vardhamana actually attained
enlightenment or that his ideas about the universe are correct?
We can't, not unless we first accept his views as true and
begin to meditate and hope to experience some subjective knowledge
that affirms this to us in some personal and intuitive way.
This is similar to Buddhism.
In fact, to illustrate the impossibility of determining if
either Buddhism or Jainism is a correct view of God and the
universe, we can ask which one we should accept? Though they
are both syncretistically connected through Hinduism, they
do maintain their distinction from one another. So we cannot
make the mistake that they are really the same religion and
attempt to accept them both. But, perhaps we could say that
both are adequate views and we must simply choose one. But
what means would we employ to determine which one we should
choose?
There is nothing in the history of the lives and deaths of
either Gautama or Vardhamana that would point to one over
the other. Both religions have devoted followers who subjectively
discern through spiritual insight the correctness of their
respective views of reality. Could we say that one of these
groups is more correct in their subjectively experience? If
so how would we make that determination? How would we know
which one is more or less correct?
Since subjectivity is the measure of correctness in both religions,
we are left without a means to determine which is correct
and which we should choose. We would ultimately have to arbitrarily
select one and reject the other. Again, we see that like Buddhism,
Jainism, though it can be considered historical in origin,
must ultimately be rejected because it provides no objective
evidence by which we might reasonably be able to verify the
accuracy of its claims.
Having examined and dismissed three major ancient Indian religions,
we will now move on to take a look at some other Asian and
Propositional religions beginning with Taoism.
Taoism
As we continue of study of Propositional religions with Taoism
we will note its similarities with other eastern religions,
including its fundamental beliefs and dependence upon the
subjective experience of the believer to affirm its truth.
The following citations all refer to the origin of Taoist
dogma.
"Taoism - 1: a Chinese mystical philosophy traditionally
founded by Lao-tzu in the 6th century B.C. that teaches
conformity to the Tao by unassertive action and simplicity
2: a religion developed from Taoist philosophy and folk
and Buddhist religion and concerned with obtaining long
life and good fortune often by magical means." - Merriam-Webster's
Online Dictionary
"Taoism - indigenous religio-philosophical tradition
that has shaped Chinese life for more than 2,000 years."
- Britannica.com
"Taoism - More strictly defined, Taoism includes:
the ideas and attitudes peculiar to the Lao-tzu (or Tao-te
Ching; "Classic of the Way of Power"), the Chuang-tzu, the
Lieh-tzu, and related writings; the Taoist religion, which
is concerned with the ritual worship of the Tao; and those
who identify themselves as Taoists." - Britannica.com
"Taoism - There is also a tendency among scholars today
to draw a less rigid line between what is called Taoist
and what is called Confucian. The two traditions share many
of the same ideas about man, society, the ruler, Heaven, and
the universeÑideas that were not created by either school
but that stem from a tradition prior to either Confucius or
Lao-tzu." - Britannica.com
"Taoism - Behind all forms of Taoism stands the
figure of Lao-tzu, traditionally regarded as the author of
the classic text known as the Lao-tzu, or the Tao-te Ching
("Classic of the Way of Power"). The first mention of
Lao-tzu is found in another early classic of Taoist speculation,
the Chuang-tzu (4th-3rd century BC), so called after the
name of its author. In this work Lao-tzu is described as being
one of Chuang-tzu's own teachers, and the same book contains
many of the Master's (Lao-tzu's) discourses, generally introduced
by the questions of a disciple. The Chuang-tzu also presents
seven versions of a meeting of Lao-tzu and Confucius. Lao-tzu
is portrayed as the elder and his Taoist teachings confound
his celebrated interlocutor. The Chuang-tzu also gives
the only account of Lao-tzu's death. Thus in this early source,
Lao-tzu appears as a senior contemporary of Confucius (6th-5th
century BC) and a renowned Taoist master, a curator of the
archives at the court of the Chou dynasty (c. 1111-255 BC)
and, finally, a mere mortal." - Britannica.com
"Taoism - The first consistent biographical account
of Lao-tzu is found in the 'Historical Records' (Shih-chi
)ÑChina's first universal history (2nd century BC)Ñof
Ssu-ma Ch'ien. This concise rŽsumŽ has served as the classical
source on the philosopher's life. Lao-tzu's family name
was Li, his given name Erh; and he occupied the post of archivist
at the Chou court. He is said to have instructed Confucius
on points of ceremony. Observing the decline of the Chou dynasty,
Lao-tzu left the court and headed west. At the request of
Yin Hsi, the guardian of the frontier pass, he wrote his
treatise on the Tao in two scrolls. He then left China
behind, and what became of him is not known. The historian
quotes variant accounts, including one that attributed
to Lao-tzu an exceptional longevity; the narrative terminates
with the genealogy of eight generations of Lao-tzu's supposed
descendants. With passing references in other early texts,
this constitutes the body of information on the life of the
sage as of the 2nd century BC; it is presumably legendary
(see also Lao-tzu)." - Britannica.com
"Taoism - Pseudohistorical knowledge of the sage
Chuang-tzu is even less well defined than that of Lao-tzu.
Most of Ssu-ma Ch'ien's brief portrait of the man is transparently
drawn from anecdotes in the Chuang-tzu itself and as such
has no necessary basis in fact. The Chuang-tzu, however,
is valuable as a monument of Chinese literature and because
it contains considerable documentary material, describing
numerous speculative trends and spiritual practices of the
Warring States period (475-221 BC)." - Britannica.com
"Taoism - Whereas Lao-tzu in his book as well
as in his life (in legend) was concerned with Taoist
rule, Chuang-tzu, some generations later, rejected all participation
in society." - Britannica.com
"Taoism - For the individual, wisdom is to conform
to the rhythm of the universe. The Taoist mystic, however,
not only adapts himself ritually and physiologically to the
alternations of nature but creates a void inside himself
that permits him to return to nature's origin. Lao-tzu, in
trance, 'wandered freely in the origin of all beings.'
Thus, in ecstasy he escaped the rhythm of life and death
by contemplating the universal return. 'Having attained perfect
emptiness, holding fast to stillness, I can watch the
return of the ever active Ten Thousand Beings.' The number
10,000 symbolizes totality." - Britannica.com
"Taoism - Lieh-tzu was a legendary Taoist master
whom Chuang-tzu described as being able to 'ride the wind
and go soaring around with cool and breezy skill.' In
many old legends Lieh-tzu is the paragon of the spiritual
traveller. The text named after him (of uncertain date)
presents a philosophy that views natural changes and human
activities as wholly mechanistic in their operation; neither
human effort nor divine destiny can change the course of things."
- Britannica.com
"Taoism - Religious Taoism appropriated earlier interest
and belief in alchemy and the search for the elixir of life
and the philosopher's stone. By the 5th cent. A.D., Taoism
was a fully developed religious system with many features
adopted from Mahayana Buddhism, offering emotional religious
satisfaction to those who found the largely ethical system
of Confucianism inadequate. Taoism developed a large pantheon
(probably incorporating many local gods), monastic orders,
and lay masters. Heading the commonly worshiped deities
is the Jade Emperor. Directly under him, ruling from Mt. Tai,
is the Emperor of the Eastern Mountain, who weighs merits
and faults and assigns reward and punishment in this and future
existences. An ecclesiastical hierarchy was founded in the
8th cent., headed by the T'ien Shih [master of heaven]; he
claimed succession from Chang Tao-lin, an alchemist of the
2d cent. who was reputed to have discovered the elixir
of immortality after receiving magical power from Lao Tzu.
Throughout its history Taoism has provided the basis for many
Chinese secret societies; in the 1950s, after the establishment
of the Communist regime, Taoism was officially proscribed.
Taoism is still practiced to some degree in modern China,
as well as in Taiwan, Hong Kong, and Macao and in communities
of Chinese who have emigrated." - The Columbia Encyclopedia,
Sixth Edition. 2001.
"Taoism - A principal philosophy and system of religion
of China based on the teachings of Lao-tzu in the sixth century
B.C. and on subsequent revelations. It advocates preserving
and restoring the Tao in the body and the cosmos." - The American
Heritage¨ Dictionary of the English Language: Fourth Edition.
2000.
"Lao Tzu - Chinese philosopher who is traditionally
regarded as the founder of Taoism. The Dao De Jing is
attributed to him." - The American Heritage¨ Dictionary of
the English Language: Fourth Edition. 2000.
"Lao Tzu - fl. 6th cent. B.C., Chinese philosopher,
reputedly the founder of Taoism. It is uncertain that Lao
Tzu [Ch.,=old person or old philosopher] is historical.
His biography in Ssu-ma Ch'ien's Records of the Historian
(1st cent. B.C.) says he was a contemporary of Confucius and
served as curator of the dynastic archives until retiring
to the mythical K'un-lun mountains. He allegedly transmitted
his teachings to a border guard who subsequently compiled
the Lao Tzu, also titled the Tao-te ching [Classic of
the Way and Virtue]. Scholars date the work in the 4th-2d
cent. B.C., with some strata perhaps as old as the 6th cent.
B.C. Its parables and verse, written in incantatory
language, advocate passive and intuitive behavior in natural
harmony with the Tao, a cosmic unity underlying all phenomena.
It emphasizes the value of wu-wei, 'nonstriving' or 'non-[purposeful
]action,' by which one returns to a primitive state closer
to the Tao, a stage of creative possibility symbolized
by the child or an uncarved block. It also promotes a laissez-faire
approach to government." - The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. 2001.
As we can see from the quotes above, Taoism is recognized
to have begun in the 6th century B.C. by Lao Tzu. This places
Taoism's origin in the same century as Buddhism and Jainism.
However, we must also note that several of our sources suggested
that Taoism pre-dates its supposed founder Lao-Tzu, who may
merely have reformulated an older existing tradition.
And so we have two options regarding the origin of Taoism.
Either it comes from an earlier tradition of which we have
no specific historical awareness. Or it was first proposed
by Lao-Tzu in the 6th century B.C. If the first case is true
then Taoism would be similar to Hinduism, whose origins are
also beyond historical examination and, therefore, hindering
our ability to confirm its reliability or accuracy.
In either case, the contributions of Lao-Tzu to the development
of Taoism are crucial to determining its accuracy. As we have
stated before, the first question to be addressed is whether
or not he actually lived and taught this view. We will repeat
a few of the quotes from above along with some new quotes,
which speak of Lao-Tzu.
"Taoism - Behind all forms of Taoism stands the figure
of Lao-tzu, traditionally regarded as the author of the classic
text known as the Lao-tzu, or the Tao-te Ching ('Classic of
the Way of Power'). The first mention of Lao-tzu is found
in another early classic of Taoist speculation, the Chuang-tzu
(4th-3rd century BC), so called after the name of its author.
In this work Lao-tzu is described as being one of Chuang-tzu's
own teachers, and the same book contains many of the Master's
(Lao-tzu's) discourses, generally introduced by the questions
of a disciple. The Chuang-tzu also presents seven versions
of a meeting of Lao-tzu and Confucius. Lao-tzu is portrayed
as the elder and his Taoist teachings confound his celebrated
interlocutor. The Chuang-tzu also gives the only account of
Lao-tzu's death. Thus in this early source, Lao-tzu
appears as a senior contemporary of Confucius (6th-5th century
BC) and a renowned Taoist master, a curator of the archives
at the court of the Chou dynasty (c. 1111-255 BC) and, finally,
a mere mortal." - Britannica.com
"Taoism - The first consistent biographical account
of Lao-tzu is found in the 'Historical Records' (Shih-chi
)ÑChina's first universal history (2nd century BC)Ñof
Ssu-ma Ch'ien. This concise resume has served as the classical
source on the philosopher's life. Lao-tzu's family name
was Li, his given name Erh; and he occupied the post of archivist
at the Chou court. He is said to have instructed Confucius
on points of ceremony. Observing the decline of the Chou dynasty,
Lao-tzu left the court and headed west. At the request of
Yin Hsi, the guardian of the frontier pass, he wrote his
treatise on the Tao in two scrolls. He then left China
behind, and what became of him is not known. The historian
quotes variant accounts, including one that attributed
to Lao-tzu an exceptional longevity; the narrative terminates
with the genealogy of eight generations of Lao-tzu's supposed
descendants. With passing references in other early texts,
this constitutes the body of information on the life of the
sage as of the 2nd century BC; it is presumably legendary
(see also Lao-tzu)." - Britannica.com
"Lao Tzu - fl. 6th cent. B.C., Chinese philosopher,
reputedly the founder of Taoism. It is uncertain that Lao
Tzu [Ch.,=old person or old philosopher] is historical.
His biography in Ssu-ma Ch'ien's Records of the Historian
(1st cent. B.C.) says he was a contemporary of Confucius and
served as curator of the dynastic archives until retiring
to the mythical K'un-lun mountains. He allegedly transmitted
his teachings to a border guard who subsequently compiled
the Lao Tzu, also titled the Tao-te ching [Classic of
the Way and Virtue]. Scholars date the work in the 4th-2d
cent. B.C., with some strata perhaps as old as the 6th cent.
B.C." - The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2001.
"Taoism - Whereas Lao-tzu in his book as well
as in his life (in legend) was concerned with Taoist
rule, Chuang-tzu, some generations later, rejected all participation
in society." - Britannica.com
Historians seem to be more comfortable categorizing Lao-Tzu
as a legend and not as a historical figure. This is probably
because the historical documentation that we do have is rather
sketchy. The Tao-te-ching, the primary work of Taoism, is
said to have been written by a border guard to whom Lao-Tzu
had taught. While the teachings of the Tao te-ching are said
to have originated with Lao-Tzu, our knowledge of Lao-Tzu
comes from two sources.
First, he is mentioned in 4th-3rd century B.C. Taoist work,
the Chuang-tzu. In this reference, Chuang-tzu, the author
of the book (after whom it is named) claims Lao-Tzu as a teacher.
The second source, which provides a more complete biography
is the Historical Records (Shih -chi), a Chinese work on the
history of China from the 2nd century B.C.
The first mention from Chuang-Tzu comes only 100-200 years
after Lao-Tzu is said to have lived, but is somewhat limited
in information. Also, in this work, Lao-Tzu is said to have
been a teacher of the book's supposed author, Chuang-Tzu.
However, the existence of Chuang-Tzu is also highly dubious
according to some historians.
"Taoism - Pseudohistorical knowledge of the sage
Chuang-tzu is even less well defined than that of Lao-tzu.
Most of Ssu-ma Ch'ien's brief portrait of the man is transparently
drawn from anecdotes in the Chuang-tzu itself and as such
has no necessary basis in fact. The Chuang-tzu, however,
is valuable as a monument of Chinese literature and because
it contains considerable documentary material, describing
numerous speculative trends and spiritual practices of the
Warring States period (475-221 BC)." - Britannica.com
It seems difficult to assert the historicity of one person
based upon tenuous evidence offered by another figure whose
own historicity is perhaps even more in question. So, we must
consider the second work by which we come to know of Lao-Tzu,
the Historical Records. However, as we can see, these records
report that Lao-Tzu spent the final years of his life in some
mythical mountain range. Thus, the historicity of Lao-Tzu
is undermined by its incorporation of identifiable mythical
elements.
From all of this historical information we can see that the
origin of Taoism remains somewhat obscure. It is difficult
based upon the available record to conclude that either Lao-Tzu
ever lived or even was the first to propose Taoism. Exactly
who Lao-Tzu was, how he died, if he died, and even where he
died is disagreed upon by available ancient sources. Likewise,
the existence of his student, Chuang-Tzu may also be a tenuous
proposal. Therefore, we can see why some historians consider
him to be merely a legend and not a historical figure.
The lack of historical certainty for the origins of Taoist
teaching leaves us without a sufficient means for verifying
its claims. But suppose that we were to consider Lao-Tzu to
be a historical figure. The historical documentation of his
life and teachings does meet the broad criteria for historicity
that we developed earlier from commonly accepted, non-controversial
historical figures. Would this provide a means to verify the
accuracy of the Taoist religion? Would we then have a reason
to accept the claims of Taoism?
Unfortunately, the answer is no. Even if we consider Lao-Tzu
and Chuang-Tzu to be real, historical figures whose teachings
are the root of Taoist theology, Taoism still would not provide
any evidence that would substantiate the accuracy of its claims.
As we have seen Asian religions, developed around the 5th
century B.C., which propose that we must transcend the material
world and become one with the All of the universe through
magic or meditation are far from common. Here again are some
of the quotes, which attest to Taoism's inclusion within this
pattern. To avoid being burdensome, we will only mention a
few just to make our point.
"Taoism - 1: a Chinese mystical philosophy traditionally
founded by Lao-tzu in the 6th century B.C. that teaches
conformity to the Tao by unassertive action and simplicity
2: a religion developed from Taoist philosophy and folk
and Buddhist religion and concerned with obtaining long
life and good fortune often by magical means." - Merriam-Webster's
Online Dictionary
"Taoism - For the individual, wisdom is to conform
to the rhythm of the universe. The Taoist mystic, however,
not only adapts himself ritually and physiologically to the
alternations of nature but creates a void inside himself
that permits him to return to nature's origin. Lao-tzu, in
trance, 'wandered freely in the origin of all beings.'
Thus, in ecstasy he escaped the rhythm of life and death
by contemplating the universal return. 'Having attained perfect
emptiness, holding fast to stillness, I can watch the
return of the ever active Ten Thousand Beings.' The number
10,000 symbolizes totality." - Britannica.com
"Taoism - Both Western Sinologists and Chinese scholars
themselves have distinguishedÑsince Han times (206 BC-AD 220)Ñbetween
a Taoist philosophy of the great mystics and their
commentators (Tao-chia) and a later Taoist religion (Tao-chiao).
This theoryÑno longer considered validÑwas based on the view
that the "ancient Taoism" of the mystics antedated
the "later Neo-Taoist superstitions" that were misinterpretations
of the mystics' metaphorical images. The mystics, however,
should be viewed against the background of the religious practices
existing in their own times. Their ecstasies, for example,
were closely related to the trances and spirit journeys of
the early magicians and shamans (religious personages with
healing and psychic transformation powers). Not only are
the authors of the Tao-te Ching, the Chuang-tzu (book
of 'Master Chuang'), and the Lieh-tzu (book of 'Master
Lieh') not the actual and central founders of an earlier
'pure' Taoism later degraded into superstitious practices
but they can even be considered somewhat on the margin of
older Taoist traditions. Therefore, because there has
been a nearly continuous mutual influence between Taoists
of different social classesÑphilosophers, ascetics, alchemists,
and the priests of popular cultsÑthe distinction between philosophical
and religious Taoism in this article is made simply for the
sake of descriptive convenience." - Britannica.com
"Taoism - The work's 81 brief sections contain only
about 5,000 characters in all, from which fact derives still
another of its titles, Lao Tzu's Five Thousand Words. The
text itself appears in equal measure to express a profound
quietism and determined views on government. It is consequently
between the extremes of meditative introspection and
political application that its many and widely divergent interpreters
have veered." - Britannica.com
"Taoism - Viewed from the single reality experienced
in ecstasy, it is just as difficult to distinguish life
from death as it is to distinguish the waking Chuang-tzu
from the dreaming butterfly. Death is natural, and men ought
neither to fear nor to desire it. Chuang-tzu's attitude thus
is one of serene acceptance." - Britannica.com
So, we see that Taoism shares much with the other religions
that we have already studied. Along with the other elements
it has in common with Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism, Taoism
also provides no objective evidence by which we might verify
the truth of its claims.
The only ways that Taoism offers to potential followers for
understanding its proposed view of the universe are subjective
experiences driven from ecstatic states of consciousness and
introspective meditation. To accept Taoism then is to engage
in assumption and circular reasoning wherein you must first
accept the truth of its teachings in order to find out that
it is true. As such are left without any reason to accept
the Taoist view of God and the universe to be true or accurate.
So we reject the Taoist view of God and the universe just
as we have Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism because of a lack
of objective evidence for the accuracy of its claims.
