Basic
Worldview:
104
Why Christianity?
Propositional
Religions 9 -
Mysticism (Part 3) - Gnosticism, Neoplatonism
Propositional
Religions 1 - Deism, Pantheism, and Naturalism
Propositional Religions 2 - Intro,
Hinduism, Buddhism
Propositional Religions 3 - Jainism,
Taoism
Propositional Religions 4 - Shintoism,
Confucianism
Propositional Religions 5 - Sikhism
Propositional Religions 6 - Babism
and Baha'ism, Zoroastrianism
Propositional Religions 7 - Neopaganism,
Mysticism (Syncretism)
Propositional Religions 8 - Mysticism
Propositional Religions 9 - Mysticism, Gnosticism, Neoplatonism
Introduction | Section 1
| Section 2 | Section
3
Babism and Baha'ism
The degree to which Babism and Baha'ism are mystical and syncretistic
is exhibited in two features. First, their acceptance and
fusion of all religions into a single collective system despite
their irreconcilable difference. Second, their belief that
God is transcendent and unknowable.
"Baha'ism - religion founded by Baha Ullah (born Mirza
Huseyn Ali Nuri) and promulgated by his eldest son, Abdul
Baha (1844-1921). It is a doctrinal outgrowth of Babism,
with Baha Allah as the Promised One of the earlier religion.
Baha'ism holds that God can be made known to man through manifestations
that have come at various stages of human progress; prophets
include Abraham, Moses, Jesus, Muhammad, the Bab, and Baha
Allah. Baha'ists believe in the unity of all religions,
in universal education, in world peace, and in the equality
of men and women. An international language and an international
government are advocated. Emphasis is laid upon simplicity
of living and upon service to the suffering." - The Columbia
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2001.
"Baha'i faith - religion founded in Iran in the mid-19th
century by Mirza Hoseyn 'Ali Nuri, who is known as Baha' Ullah
(Arabic: "Glory of God"). The cornerstone of Baha'i belief
is the conviction that Baha' Ullah and his forerunner, who
was known as the Bab, were manifestations of God, who in
his essence is unknowable. The principal Baha'i tenets are
the essential unity of all religions and the unity of
humanity. Baha'is believe that all the founders of the
world's great religions have been manifestations of God and
agents of a progressive divine plan for the education
of the human race. Despite their apparent differences,
the world's great religions, according to the Baha'is, teach
an identical truth. Baha' Ullah's peculiar function was to
overcome the disunity of religions and establish a universal
faith." - Britannica.com
Zoroastrianism
Mystical aspects of Zoroastrianism come by way of its connection
to magical rites, dualistic features, and later forms, such
as Manichaeism, which were highly mystical in nature. The
syncretistic characteristics of Zoroastrianism are evidenced
by its incorporation, like Hinduism, of the obscure religion
of the Aryans.
"Zoroastrianism - The religion of Iran before the
time of Zoroaster is not directly accessible, for there are
no reliable sources more ancient than the prophet himself.
It has to be studied indirectly on the basis of later documents
and by a comparative approach. The language of Iran is closely
akin to that of northern India, and hence the people of
the two lands probably had common ancestorsÑthe Indo-Iranians,
or Aryans. The religion of the latter has been reconstructed
by means of common elements contained in the sacred books
of Iran and India: mainly the Avesta and the Vedas. Both collections
exhibit the same kind of polytheism, with many of the same
gods, notably the Indian Mitra (the Iranian Mithra), the
cult of fire, sacrifice by means of a sacred liquor ( soma
in India, in Iran haoma ), and other parallels. There is,
moreover, a list of Aryan gods in a treaty concluded
about 1380 BC between the Hittite emperor and the king
of Mitanni. The list includes Mitra and Varuna, Indra,
and the two Nasatyas. All of these gods also are found in
the Vedas, but only the first one in the Avesta, except that
Indra and Na–haithya appear in the Avesta as demons; Varuna
may have survived under another name. Important changes,
then, must have taken place on the Iranian side, not all of
which can be attributed to the prophet." - Britannica.com
"Avesta - The extant Avesta is all that remains
of a much larger body of scripture, apparently Zoroaster's
transformation of a very ancient tradition." - Britannica.com
"Zoroastrianism - Zoroastrianism's scriptures are
the Avesta or the Zend Avesta [Pahlavi avesta=law, zend=commentary]...it
is written in old Iranian, a language similar to Vedic
Sanskrit." - The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
2001.
"Zoroastrianism - Gradually certain practices that
Zoroaster appears to have deplored, such as the use of
haoma (a narcotic intoxicant) in prayer and the sacrifice
of bulls in connection with the cult of the god Mithra
(a lesser god in Zoroastrianism), became features of the religion.
It is not surprising, however, that former customs should
be thus revived, because Zoroaster appears to have incorporated
in his religion the old Persian pantheon, although very
much refined. Instead of tolerating the worship of all the
deities, however, he divided them into those who were beneficent
and truthful and those whose malevolence and falseness made
them abhorrent." - The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
2001.
"Zoroastrianism - The ancient Greeks saw in Zoroastrianism
the archetype of the dualistic view of the world and of man's
destiny. Zoroaster was supposed to have instructed Pythagoras
in Babylon and to have inspired the Chaldean doctrines of
astrology and magic. It is likely that Zoroastrianism
influenced the development of Judaism and the birth of Christianity
. The Christians, following a Jewish tradition, identified
Zoroaster with Ezekiel, Nimrod, Seth, Balaam, and Baruch,
and even, through the latter, with Christ himself. On the
other hand, Zoroaster, as the presumed founder of astrology
and magic, could be considered the arch-heretic. In more
recent times the study of Zoroastrianism has played a decisive
part in reconstructing the religion and social structure of
the Indo-European peoples." - Britannica.com
"Zoroaster - A major personality in the history of
the religions of the world, Zoroaster has been the object
of much attention for two reasons. On the one hand, he became
a legendary figure believed to be connected with occult knowledge
and magical practices in the Near Eastern and Mediterranean
world in the Hellenistic Age (c. 300 BC-c. AD 300). On the
other hand, his monotheistic concept of God has attracted
the attention of modern historians of religion, who have speculated
on theconnections between his teaching and Judaism and Christianity.
Though extreme claims of pan-Iranianism (i.e., that Zoroastrian
or Iranian ideas influenced Greek, Roman, and Jewish thought)
may be disregarded, the pervasive influence of Zoroaster's
religious thought must nevertheless be recognized." - Britannica.com
"Zoroastrianism - Founded by the Iranian prophet and
reformer Zoroaster in the 6th century BC, the religion contains
both monotheistic and dualistic features." - Britannica.com
"Zoroastrianism - It is not known when Zoroaster's
doctrine reached western Iran, but it must have been before
the time of Aristotle (384-322), who alludes to its dualism."
- Britannica.com
"Zoroastrianism - Zoroastrianism should be regarded
as quasi-dualistic, rather than (as sometimes described)
wholly dualistic, since it predicts the ultimate triumph
of Ahura Mazdah." - The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
2001.
Gnosticism and Manichaeism
Now that we have demonstrated the mystical and syncretistic
traits of the major and foundational Propositional religions,
we should also take a brief look at two additional examples
of Propositional Mysticism, which, like some of the others
we have already seen, are a combination of several religions
systems. Our particular interest in these two religions (Gnosticism
and Manichaeism) is their ability to fuse the beliefs of these
other religions together through an emphasis on mysticism.
Since Manichaeism fuses Zoroastrianism with Gnosticism, we
will start with Gnosticism.
"Gnosticism - the thought and practice especially of
various cults of late pre-Christian and early Christian
centuries distinguished by the conviction that matter
is evil and that emancipation comes through gnosis." -
Merriam-Webster's Online Dictionary
"Gnosticism - dualistic religious and philosophical
movement of the late Hellenistic and early Christian eras.
The term designates a wide assortment of sects, numerous by
the 2d cent. A.D.; they all promised salvation through
an occult knowledge that they claimed was revealed to them
alone. Scholars trace these salvation religions back to such
diverse sources as Jewish mysticism, Hellenistic mystery cults,
Iranian religious dualism (see Zoroastrianism), and Babylonian
and Egyptian mythology. The definition of gnosis [knowledge]
as concern with the Eternal was already present in earlier
Greek philosophy, although its connection with the later Gnostic
movement is distant at best. Christian ideas were quickly
incorporated into these syncretistic systems, and by the
2d cent. the largest of them, organized by Valentinus and
Basilides, were a significant rival to Christianity." - The
Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2001.
"Gnosticism - philosophical and religious movement
prominent in the Greco-Roman world in the 2nd century AD.
While Gnosticism drew from and influenced in turn many traditional
religions, its effect was most clearly felt on nascent
Christianity, in which it led to the formation of the canon,
creed, and episcopal organization." - Britannica.com
"Gnosticism - The origins of the Gnostic world view
have been sought by scholars in the dualism of Iranian religion,
the allegorical Idealism of the Middle Platonic philosophers,
and the apocalypticism of certain Jewish mystics. There
are analogies also with Egyptian and Mesopotamian thought.
It was only with the rise of Christianity, however, that Gnostic
syncretism came to full expression." - Britannica.com
From these quotes we can see that Gnosticism was a form of
Greek mystery religion that flourished after the development
of Christianity. Like other forms of mysticism, Gnosticism
was formed through the fusion of other religious systems.
Those upon which Gnosticism based itself include: Zoroastrianism
(dualistic Iranian religions), Jewish mysticism, and Greek
Platonic philosophy.
Also, like other forms of mysticism, Gnosticism focused on
transcending our physical (or material) existence and being
one with the divine fullness, which they simply called the
plorema (the Greek word for fullness). And like all other
forms of mysticism going all the way back to Hinduism, this
escape from the physical existence to become one with the
divine fullness occurred as a result of subjective inner knowledge.
The following quotes also establish similarities between Gnosticism
and the concept of God held by the other mystical religions
that we've examined above.
"Gnosticism - In the Gnostic view, the unconscious
self of man is consubstantial with the Godhead, but because
of a tragic fall it is thrown into a world that is completely
alien to its real being. Through revelation from above, man
becomes conscious of his origin, essence, and transcedent
destiny. Gnostic revelation is to be distinguished both
from philosophical enlightenment, because it cannot be
acquired by the forces of reason, and from Christian revelation,
because it is not rooted in history and transmitted by
Scripture. It is rather the intuition of the mystery of the
self." - Britannica.com
"Gnosticism - The world, produced from evil matter
and possessed by evil demons, cannot be a creation of a
good God; it is mostly conceived of as an illusion, or
an abortion, dominated by Yahweh, the Jewish demiurge,
whose creation and history are depreciated. This world is
therefore alien to God, who is for the Gnostics depth and
silence, beyond any name or predicate, the absolute, the source
of good spirits who together form the pleroma, or realm of
light." - Britannica.com
"Gnosticism - These conceptions are expressed in various
myths, which employ material from many traditional religions
but serve to express a basic experience that is new, the
discovery of the unconscious self or spirit in man which sleeps
in him until awakened by the Saviour. The Gnostic sects
of the 2nd century made use of Hebrew and Christian religious
writings, employing the allegorical method to extricate
Gnostic meanings from them." - Britannica.com
From these quotes we can see the many similarities Gnosticism
borrows from its predecessors. Its dualistic aspects are derived
from those of Zoroastrianism. Both religions present the idea
of a god who is expressed in emanations.
"Gnosticism - The dualistic phase was reached after
the expansion of Gnosticism into the Hellenistic world and
under the influence of Platonic philosophy, from which was
borrowed the doctrine that a lower demiurge was responsible
for the creation of this world. This teaching is to be
found in the Apocryphon of John (early 2nd century) and other
documents of popular gnosis discovered near Naj' Hammadi in
upper Egypt in the 1940s and in the Pistis Sophia, a 3rd-century
Gnostic work in Coptic belonging to the same school. The learned
gnosis of Valentinus, Basilides (qq.v.), and their schools
presupposes this popular gnosis, which, however, has been
thoroughly Hellenized and Christianized and sometimes comes
very near to the views of Middle Platonism." - Britannica.com
"Gnosticism - Some Gnostics taught that the world
is ruled by evil archons, among them the deity of the Old
Testament, who hold captive the spirit of humanity. The heavenly
pleroma was the center of the divine life, and Jesus was interpreted
as an intermediary eternal being, or aeon, sent from the pleroma
to restore the lost knowledge of humanity's divine origin.
Gnostics held secret formulas, which they believed would
free them at death from the evil archons and restore them
to their heavenly abode. See Valentinus for typical Gnostic
teaching on the pleroma Christianity." - The Columbia Encyclopedia,
Sixth Edition. 2001.
Additionally, as we would expect by now, the Gnostics placed
a great deal of emphasis on subjective, personal experience
as opposed to objectively verifiable evidence.
"Gnosticism - The designation Gnosticism, derived
from the Greek gnostikos (one who has gnosis, or 'secret knowledge'),
is a term of modern scholarship. Evidence for the Gnostic
phenomenon, found in the Church Fathers who opposed Gnostic
teachings (Irenaeus, c. 185; Hippolytus, c. 230; Epiphanius,
c. 375) and in the Gnostic writings themselves, reveals a
diversity in theology, ethics, and ritual that defies strict
classification. Yet Gnostic sects appear to have shared
an emphasis on the redemptive power of esoteric knowledge,
acquired not by learning or empirical observation but by divine
revelation." - Britannica.com
The only modern group with acknowledged Gnostic roots are
the Mandaeans, whose belief system is derived from Gnosticism
and Parsis (Zoroastrianism).
"Mandaeans - or Mandeans, a small religious sect
in Iran and S Iraq, who maintain an ancient belief resembling
that of Gnosticism and that of the Parsis. They are also
known as Christians of St. John, Nasoraeans, Sabians, and
Subbi. A few Mandaeans survive, some near the Tigris and Euphrates
rivers, others in the area of Shushtar, Iran, and in cities
of Asia Minor. Their customs and writings indicate early Christian,
perhaps pre-Christian, origin. Their system of astrology resembles
those of ancient Babylonia and the cults of the Magi in the
last centuries B.C. heir emanation system and their dualism
suggest a Gnostic origin, but unlike the Gnostics, they
abhor asceticism and emphasize fertility. Although some
of their practices were influenced by Christianity, Judaism,
and Islam, they reject all three. The Mandaeans respect
St. John the Baptist because of his baptizing, since their
principal concern is ritual cleanliness and their chief rite
is frequent baptism. The custom, which antedated the baptisms
of St. John, stems from the belief that living water is the
principle of life. They have a communion sacrament, which
is offered for the remembrance of the dead and resembles Parsi
ritual meals. The origin of the Mandaeans is not known; it
is conjectured that they came from a mountainous region N
of Babylonia and Persia, where they settled in ancient times;
however, more recent scholarship places their origin in Palestine
or Syria. Their chief holy book, the Ginza Rba, like their
other books, is a compendium of cosmology, cosmogony, prayers,
legends, and rituals, written at various times and often contradictory.
The sect is diminishing because younger members tend to apostatize."
- The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2001.
One ancient Gnostic group that deserves some attention is
Manichaeism, which like Mandaeanism is derived from Gnosticism
and Zoroastrianism. Like many of the other forms of Gnosticism
it began during the early Christian era, specifically in the
3rd century A.D.
"Manichaeism - dualistic religious movement founded
in Persia in the 3rd century AD by Mani (q.v.), who was
known as the 'Apostle of Light' and supreme 'Illuminator.'"
- Britannica.com
Manichaeism effectively demonstrates the confluence of Gnosticism
and Zoroastrianism in its belief that the physical world resulted
from interaction between good and evil, or respectively, of
spirit and matter.
"Mani - born April 14, 216, southern Babylonia died
274?, Gundeshapur, also called Manes, or Manichaeus Iranian
founder of the Manichaean religion, a church advocating
a dualistic doctrine that viewed the world as a fusion
of spirit and matter, the original contrary principles of
good and evil, respectively." - Britannica.com
Mani, the founder of Manichaeanism, held the essential syncretistic
view of religion. As a result his religious ideology (Manichaeanism)
completely originates from syncretistic processes. More specifically,
Manichaeanism is the attempted combination of three essential
religious schools, Buddhism (the Hindu tradition), Zoroastrianism,
and Christianity.
"Manichaeism - Mani (called Manes by the Greeks
and Romans) was born near Baghdad, probably of Persian parents;
his father may have been a member of the Mandaeans. After
wandering for several years as a meditative ascetic he came
forward (c.240) as the inspired prophet of a new religion.
He went to Bactria in NW India, where he came in contact
with Buddhism." - The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
2001.
"Manichaeism - Mani viewed himself as the final
successor in a long line of prophets, beginning with Adam
and including Buddha, Zoroaster, and Jesus. He viewed
earlier revelations of the true religion as being limited
in effectiveness because they were local, taught in one language
to one people. Moreover, later adherents lost sight
of the original truth. Mani regarded himself as the
carrier of a universal message destined to replace all other
religions. Hoping to avoid corruption and to ensure doctrinal
unity, he recorded his teachings in writing and gave those
writings canonical status during his lifetime." - Britannica.com
"Manichaeism - Mani sought to found a truly ecumenical
and universal religion that would integrate into itself
all the partial truths of previous revelations, especially
those of Zoroaster, Buddha, and Jesus. However, beyond
mere syncretism, it sought the proclamation of a truth
that could be translated into diverse forms in accordance
with the different cultures into which it spread. Thus,
Manichaeism, depending on the context, resembles Iranian and
Indian religions, Christianity, Buddhism, and Taoism." - Britannica.com
"Manichaeism - He returned to Persia after the coronation
(241) of Shapur I, who was tolerant of new religious movements;
at the Sassanid capital of Ctesiphon he began preaching
(c.242) the doctrine that was to become Manichaeism, a great
synthesis of elements from Gnosticism, Zoroastrianism, other
Persian religions, Christianity, Buddhism, and Taoism, as
well as from the teachings of Marcion. Rejecting all of the
Old Testament and parts of the New Testament, Mani claimed
Buddha, Zoroaster, Hermes, and Plato as his predecessors.
He always called himself 'Mani, Apostle of Jesus Christ' and
held that he was the Paraclete promised by Jesus." - Britannica.com
As a combination derived from Gnosticism and Zoroastrianism,
Manichaeanism takes a dualist view of the divine and views
the material world as an evil place, a prison, which we must
transcend or escape from by acquiring secret or esoteric knowledge.
Of note also is its acceptance of the process or death and
rebirth borrowed from Hinduism through Buddhism.
"Manichaeism - dualistic religious movement founded
in Persia in the 3rd century AD by Mani (q.v.), who was
known as the 'Apostle of Light' and supreme 'Illuminator.'"
- Britannica.com
"Manichaeism - At its core, Manichaeism was a type
of GnosticismÑa dualistic religion that offered salvation
through special knowledge (gnosis) of spiritual truth.
Like all forms of Gnosticism, Manichaeism taught that life
in this world is unbearably painful and radically evil. Inner
illumination or gnosis reveals that the soul which shares
in the nature of God has fallen into the evil world of matter
and must be saved by means of the spirit or intelligence (nous).To
know one's self is to recover one's true self, which was previously
clouded by ignorance and lack of self-consciousness because
of its mingling with the body and with matter. In Manichaeism,
to know one's self is to see one's soul as sharing in the
very nature of God and as coming from a transcendent world.
Knowledge enables a person to realize that, despite his
abject present condition in the material world, he does not
cease to remain united to the transcendent world by eternal
and immanent bonds with it. Thus, knowledge is the only
way to salvation." - Britannica.com
"Manichaeism - The saving knowledge of the true nature
and destiny of humanity, God, and the universe is expressed
in Manichaeism in a complex mythology. Whatever its details,
the essential theme of this mythology remains constant: the
soul is fallen, entangled with evil matter, and then liberated
by the spirit or nous. The myth unfolds in three stages:
a past period in which there was a separation of the two
radically opposed substancesÑSpirit and Matter, Good and Evil,
Light and Darkness; a middle period (corresponding to
the present) during which the two substances are mixed; and
a future period in which the original duality will be reestablished.
At death the soul of the righteous person returns to Paradise.
The soul of the person who persisted in things of the fleshÑfornication,
procreation, possessions, cultivation, harvesting, eating
of meat, drinking of wineÑis condemned to rebirth in a
succession of bodies." - Britannica.com
"Manichaeism - Basic to the religion's doctrine
was the conflicting dualism between the realm of God, represented
by light and by spiritual enlightenment, and the realm of
Satan, symbolized by darkness and by the world of material
things. To account for the existence of evil in a world
created by God, Mani posited a primal struggle in which the
forces of Satan separated from God; humanity, composed
of matter, that which belongs to Satan, but infused with a
modicum of godly light, was a product of this struggle, and
was a paradigm of the eternal war between the forces of light
and those of darkness. Christ, the ideal, light-clad soul,
could redeem for each person that portion of light God had
allotted. Light and dark were seen to be commingled in
our present age as good and evil, but in the last days each
would return to its proper, separate realm, as they were in
the beginning. The Christian notion of the Fall and of
personal sin was repugnant to the Manichees; they felt that
the soul suffered not from a weak and corrupt will but from
contact with matter. Evil was a physical, not a moral, thing;
a person's misfortunes were miseries, not sins." - The
Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2001.
"Manichaeism - Believing in metempsychosis (see
transmigration of souls), the auditors hoped to be
reborn as elect. All other were sinners, doomed to hell."
- The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2001.
After spreading his religion Mani died while in prison at
the age of 60. Over time his religion gradually came to extinction
in both the West and the East, where it finally disappeared
during the 13th century (A.D.)
"Manichaeism - During the long reign of Shapur I (d.
272), Mani was free to travel about the realm making converts.
However, the accession of Bahram I brought a reaction against
the Manichaeans (or Manichees) from orthodox Zoroastrian religious
circles, and, after 272, Mani and his followers met with
increasing persecution. He died while imprisoned (c.276) in
SW Persia." - The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
2001.
"Manichaeism - The Manichaean Church from the beginning
was dedicated to vigorous missionary activity in an attempt
to convert the world. Mani encouraged the translation of his
writings into other languages and organized an extensive mission
program. Manichaeism rapidly spread west into the Roman Empire.
From Egypt it moved across northern Africa (where the young
Augustine temporarily became a convert) and reached Rome in
the early 4th century. The 4th century marked the height of
Manichaean expansion in the West, with churches established
in southern Gaul and Spain. Vigorously attacked by both
the Christian Church and the Roman state, it disappeared almost
entirely from Western Europe by the end of the 5th century,
and, during the course of the 6th century, from the eastern
portion of the Empire." - Britannica.com
"Manichaeism - Several Christian emperors, including
Justinian, published edicts against the Manichees. St. Augustine,
in his youth a Manichee, describes in his Confessions his
conversion to Christianity. Little is heard of the Manichees
in the West after the 6th cent., but their doctrines reappear
in the medieval heresies of the Cathari, Albigenses, and Bogomils.
It was the practice in the Middle Ages to call by the name
of Manichaeism any dualist Christian heresy. The young religion
of Islam was also challenged by the Manichean sect in Africa
and Asia. The sect survived in the East, notably in Chinese
Turkistan (Xinjiang), until about the 13th cent." - The
Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2001.
The purpose of our discussion of Gnosticism and Manichaeanism
is not to examine why they must be rejected as we have spent
so much time doing with previous religions. We can easily
dismiss their claims for all the same reasons that we have
dismissed their parent religions.
The purpose of looking at Gnosticism and Manichaeanism was
threefold. First, to cover an additional religion, which bridges
some of the gaps that existed between the religions we have
previously covered. Second, to demonstrate how the mystical
and syncretistic characteristics of Propositional religions
can fit so neatly together into a single theological system.
And third, to demonstrate that while Gnosticism blends mysticism
with Judeo-Christian concepts to some extent, its essentially
mystical and propositional character distinguish it clearly
from the Judeo-Christian theology expressed in the Old and
New Testaments of scripture. (This final goal will be examined
in a bit more detail after we have covered the historicity
of New Testament documents later in this study.)
Neoplatonism
One final belief system that must be mentioned in closing
is Neoplatonism. Neoplatonism is significant to our discussion
of Propositional and Mystical religions for several reasons.
First, it is at once a syncretistic blend of ancient Platonic
thought, Greek philosophy, Gnosticism, and Mysticism. Second,
it is the final collected form of the pagan mystical traditions
and has become the dominant and underlying expression of mystical
thought since it's founding in the 3rd century A.D.
"Neoplatonism - the last school of Greek philosophy,
given its definitive shape in the 3rd century Ad by the
one great philosophical and religious genius of the school,
Plotinus. The ancient philosophers who are generally classified
as Neoplatonists called themselves simple 'Platonists,'
as did the philosophers of the Renaissance and the 17th century
whose ideas derive from ancient Neoplatonism. See Platonism."
- Britannica.com
"Platonism - Neoplatonism is the modern name given
to the form of Platonism developed by Plotinus in the 3rd
century AD and modified by his successors. It came to
dominate the Greek philosophical schools and remained predominant
until the teaching of philosophy by pagans ended in the second
half of the 6th century AD. It represents the final form
of pagan Greek philosophy. It was not a mere syncretism
(or combination of diverse beliefs) but a genuine, if one-sided,
development of ideas to be found in Plato and earlier PlatonismÑthough
it incorporated important Aristotelian and Stoic elements
as well. There is no real evidence for Oriental influence.
A certain Gnostic (relating to intuitive knowledge
acquired by privileged individuals and immune to empirical
verification) tone or colouring sometimes may be discerned
in the thought of Plotinus. But he was consciously a passionate
opponent of Gnosticism, and in any case there was often
a large element of popular Platonism in the Gnostic systems
then current. Moreover, the theosophical works of the
late 2nd century AD known as the Chaldean Oracles, which were
taken as inspired authorities by the later Neoplatonists,
seem to have been a hodgepodge of popular Greek religious
philosophy." - Britannica.com
"Neoplatonism - ancient mystical philosophy based
on the doctrines of Plato." - The Columbia Encyclopedia,
Sixth Edition. 2001.
"Neoplatonism - Considered the last of the great
pagan philosophies, it was developed by Plotinus (3d cent.
A.D.). It has had a lasting influence on Western metaphysics
and mysticism, although its original form was much altered
by the followers of Plotinus. Neoplatonism was a viable
force from the middle of the 3d cent. to 529, when Justinian
closed the Academy at Athens. Although Plotinus is the central
figure of Neoplatonism, his teacher, Ammonius Saccus (175-242),
a self-taught laborer of Alexandria, may have been the actual
founder; however, no writings of Ammonius have survived. Plotinus
left Egypt, settled in Rome in 244, and founded a school there."
- The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2001.
As we can see 3rd century Neoplatonism is really rooted in
a more ancient Greek philosophical and mystical traditions.
The quotes below will confirm the mystical relationship between
Neoplatonism as the ultimate form of purified mystical beliefs
and the many other mystical traditions that we have already
discussed.
Britannica.com identifies seven major characteristics of Neoplatonic
thought. All of which can be found in the various mystical
traditions that we have already studied.
"Platonism - Neoplatonism began as a complex (and in
some ways ambiguous) philosophy and grew vigorously in a variety
of forms over a long period; it is therefore not easy to generalize
about it. But the leading ideas in the thought of philosophers
who can properly be described as Neoplatonists seem always
to have included the following: 1. There is a plurality
of levels of being, arranged in hierarchical descending order,
the last and lowest comprising the physical universe, which
exists in time and space and is perceptible to the senses.
2. Each level of being is derived from its superior, a
derivation that is not a process in time or space. 3.
Each derived being is established in its own reality by
turning back toward its superior in a movement of contemplative
desire, which is implicit in the original creative impulse
of outgoing that it receives from its superior; thus the
Neoplatonic universe is characterized by a double movement
of outgoing and return. 4. Each level of being is an
image or expression on a lower level of the one above it.
The relation of archetype and image runs through all Neoplatonic
schemes. 5. Degrees of being are also degrees of unity;
as one goes down the scale of being there is greater multiplicity,
more separateness, and increasing limitationÑuntil the atomic
individualization of the spatiotemporal world is reached.
6. The highest level of being, and through it all of what
in any sense exists, derives from the ultimate principle,
which is absolutely free from determinations and limitations
and utterly transcends any conceivable reality, so that it
may be said to be 'beyond being.' Because it has no limitations,
it has no division, attributes, or qualifications; it cannot
really be named, or even properly described as being, but
may be called 'the One' to designate its complete simplicity.
It may also be called 'the Good' as the source of all perfections
and the ultimate goal of return, for the impulse of outgoing
and return that constitutes the hierarchy of derived reality
comes from and leads back to the Good. 7. Since this supreme
principle is absolutely simple and undetermined (or devoid
of specific traits), man's knowledge of it must be radically
different from any other kind of knowledge. It is not
an object (a separate, determined, limited thing) and no predicates
can be applied to it; hence it can be known only if it
raises the mind to an immediate union with itself, which cannot
be imagined or described." - Britannica.com
This long quote from Britannica.com exhibits the main traits
of all mystical thought and gives evidence that they ultimately
found acceptance within Neoplatonism. We have the hierarchical
levels of being ranging from the inconceivable, unknowable
"One," which transcends reality and being down to the physical
or material world that mankind inhabits. Each level of being
emanates and reflects the preceding level. And mankind must
seek through contemplation to transcend our crude material
existence and return to unity with the "One." This process
of transcendent reunification with ultimate reality is entirely
subjective and cannot be accomplished through objective means.
Additional quotes from the Columbia Encyclopedia confirm these
facts.
"Neoplatonism - At the center of the order is the
One, an incomprehensible, all-sufficient unity. By the process
of emanation the One gives rise to the Divine Mind or Logos
[word], which contains all the forms, or living intelligences,
of individuals. The content of the Divine Mind, therefore,
constitutes a multiple reflection of the unitary perfection
of the One. Below the divine mind is the World Soul, which
links the intellectual and material worlds. These three transcendent
realities, or hypostases (the One, the Divine Mind, and the
World Soul) support the finite and visible world, which includes
individuals and matter. Plotinus sometimes compared the
One to a fountain, from which overflowed the lower levels
of reality." - The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2001.
"Neoplatonism - The Neoplatonic cosmology also had
religious overtones, for Plotinus believed that people potentially
sought a life in which the individual soul would rise through
contemplation to the level of intelligence (the Divine Mind)
and then through mystic union would be absorbed in the One
itself. Conversely, a privation of being or lack of desire
toward the One was the cause of sin, which was held to be
a negative quality (i.e., nonparticipation in the perfection
of the One). There are thus two reciprocal movements in
Neoplatonism: the metaphysical movement of emanation from
the One, and the ethical or religious movement of reflective
return to the One through contemplation of the forms of the
Divine Mind." - The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
2001.
"Neoplatonism - While Plotinus' thought was mystical
(i.e., concerned with the infinite and invisible within the
finite and visible world), his method was thoroughly rational,
stemming from the logical and humanistic traditions of Greece.
Many of his philosophical elements came from earlier philosophies;
the existence of the One and the attendant theory of ideas
were aspects of the later writings of Plato, particularly
the Timaeus, and Stoicism had identified the World Soul
with transcendent universal reason. What was distinctive in
Plotinus' system was the unified, hierarchical structuring
of these elements and the theory of emanation." - The
Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2001.
"Neoplatonism - The followers of Plotinus took divergent
paths. Porphyry, who remained in Rome, made extensive use
of allegory in expounding Plotinus' rationalistic thought
and attacked Christianity in the name of Hellenic paganism.
Lamblichus taught in Rome for a time and then returned to
Chalcis in Syria to found a Neoplatonic center there. At
this center, and also at others in Athens and Alexandria,
the mystical trends of the East, including divination, demonology,
and astrology, were grafted onto the body of Neoplatonism."
- The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2001.
So, we see that Neoplatonism becomes the ultimate collection
of the ancient mystical schools, both influencing and drawing
from other later traditions like Gnosticism. In essence, Neoplatonism
contains Gnosticism, Buddhism, Hinduism, Taoism, etc. in a
purified syncretistic whole, devoid of the specific identities
that were supplied and employed by these other systems.
Neoplatonism's assembly of these other mystical thoughts into
a final nameless format has enabled it to become widely influential
after is formal emergeance in the 3rd century. As such it
has become the means by which ancient mystical thought has
infiltrated and continued to affect a wide range of religious
thought (especially in the West) ever since.
"Neoplatonism - In the Middle Ages, elements of
Plotinus' thought can be found in St. Thomas Aquinas and
John Scotus Erigena, particularly in the identification
of the One with God and the Divine Mind with the angels
The system influenced medieval Jewish and Arab philosophy,
and G. W. F. Hegel's metaphysics had Neoplatonic ingredients.
Neoplatonic metaphysics and aesthetics also influenced the
German Romantics (see romanticism), the 17th-century English
metaphysical poets, William Blake, and the Cambridge Platonists.
Many mystical movements in the West, including those
of Meister Eckhardt and Jacob Boehme, owe something to
the Neoplatonists." - The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. 2001.
Because of its all-encompassing syncretistic nature and dominance
as final, basic, and purified mystical thought it would not
be inaccurate to view Neoplatonism as synonymous with or at
least closely related to all forms of mysticism and Propositional
religion. For this reason it may be accurate to also identify
Propositional Mysticism with Neoplatonism in as much as the
views expressed in Neoplatonic thought serve as the structural
skeleton, which for the most part forms the foundations of
all propositional and mystical thought. Or put another way,
Neoplatonism, both openly and subconsciously, has been the
dominant, underlying force in the Propositional Mysticism
of the West, which has been a dominant force in the development
of world civilization for several millennia and counting.
Conclusions about Propositional Mysticism
Our study of Propositional religions has involved a tedious
and exhaustive look at several religions systems. In each
case, we poured over historical details in an attempt to understand
the origin of the religious claims. We sought after any evidence,
which we might use to verify the accuracy of each religion's
claims. And, though this process was long and perhaps tiresome,
it was necessary in order to evaluate each religion upon its
own merits.
The final result of this study was that we have no reason
to accept that the claims of Propositional religions are reliable
or accurate views of God. In each case, we found that there
was either a total lack of objectively verifiable evidence
to support the theological claims, that the evidence contradicted
the claims, or that evidence was available, but was not sufficient
to substantiate the theological claims or did not have a corroborating
relationship to the theological claims.
In our search to understand how we should view God, we want
to be careful and not indiscriminately or hastily disregard
a religious view without good reason. We do not want to simply
or conveniently categorically dismissing an entire group of
religions without any genuine assessment having been done.
To that end we have sought to examine each religion on its
own, assess its origins, evidences, beliefs, and relationships
with other religions so that we can truly determine whether
a particular religious view should be accepted or discarded.
We have now completed this task with regard to Propositional
religions.
Having now finished our in-depth look at all of these individual
Propositional relgions, it is now possible, with good reason,
to view these various religions, no longer as separate and
distinct views of God and the universe, but as a single, composite
theological system. Two things permit us to fuse these systems
together into a single whole, which we will appropriately
refer to as Propositional Mysticism. The first is their shared
beliefs, practices, and approaches to spiritually. The second
is the syncretistic nature by which all Propositional religions
originate and develop through a process of incorporating and
adapting previously existing religious views, mostly without
substantiation.
The super-religion, Propositional Mysticism, is named for
and defined by its fundamental characteristics, which we have
seen repeatedly exhibited by its member sub-religions. These
fundamental characteristics are:
1. The propositional nature of the religious claims.
This is identified by each religion's failure to produce or
even offer any objective or verifiable evidence by which its
claims can be substantiated or accepted. Instead of being
supported by evidence the claims of such religions are merely
proposed and the potential follower is expected to accept
the accuracy of the these claims soley upon presumption, circular
reasoning, and subjective, personal experience.
2. The mystical view of God, the universe, and human
spirituality. Mysticism is identified as any religious system,
which incorporates the idea that the believer can transcend
material existence and become one with God through subjective,
personal, or intuitive experience by participation in mysteries
or initiation rites.
Beyond these two foundation traits have seen that Propositional
Mysticism is also defined by:
3. Syncretism. The incorporation, combination, acceptance,
or fusion of different concepts and different belief systems
into a single, comprehensive whole. (These incorporations
do not first require that the adopted belief be substantiated.)
4. Obscurity of Origins (or lack of historicity). Many
of the foundational religions, from which Propositional Mysticism
is derived do not have historically identifiable origins or
founders.
Common beliefs which are held by Propositional Mysticism also
include, but may not be limited to: reincarnation, karma,
a path of steps to achieve enlightenment, a dualistic view
of the God or the divine, the "unknowability" or "inexpressible
nature" of the supreme being, polytheism (possibly taking
the form of emanations of the supreme God), practice of magical
arts, mystical rites, and meditation, etc.
One last note, while not all of the religions, which we have
studied, that we might place into this overarching category
share all of these beliefs, and some may even disagree with
one another, we feel it is still fair to place them into the
same composite theological system. The disagreements that
may exist between various Propositional religions over concepts
and practices do not seem to be any more significant than
the variation that exists between the many Christian denominations
of the modern era. These Christian denominations often disagree
with one another in what at times are contradictory and irreconcilable
ways over very fundamental Christian issues including the
nature of God, freewill, the incarnation of Jesus Christ,
etc. Yet, despite these crucial differences they are close
enough to all be placed within the single category of Christian
religions. In like fashion, the many religions that we have
covered in our Propositional religions section have as much
in common in terms of origin and unifying, fundamental concepts
on God, the universe, salvation, and the spirituality of man,
to be identified collectively as Propositional Mysticism despite
their relative differences on some issues.
Having at last completed our survey of Propositional religion,
we will now, finally move on to the next section of this study,
our analysis of Evidentiary religions. Since the purpose of
this entire study is to demonstrate the superiority of Christianity,
we will begin with an examination of Islam. After demonstrating
the reasons why Islam must be rejected we will proceed to
take a look at Judaism and Christianity.
