Basic
Worldview:
104
Why Christianity?
Propositional
Religions 7 -
Neopaganism, Mysticism (and Syncretism)
Propositional
Religions 1 - Deism, Pantheism, and Naturalism
Propositional Religions 2 - Intro,
Hinduism, Buddhism
Propositional Religions 3 - Jainism,
Taoism
Propositional Religions 4 - Shintoism,
Confucianism
Propositional Religions 5 - Sikhism
Propositional Religions 6 - Babism
and Baha'ism, Zoroastrianism
Propositional Religions 7 - Neopaganism,
Mysticism (Syncretism)
Propositional Religions 8 - Mysticism
Propositional Religions 9 - Mysticism, Gnosticism, Neoplatonism
Introduction | Section 1
| Section 2 | Section
3
Pulling it all together
Before we at last move on to examine the three great Evidentiary
religions of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, there are a
few loose ends that we should first tie up including a much
needed summary of this long study.
In this section of our study we have covered and dismissed
the claims of the following Propositional religions for the
reasons stated:
1. Hinduism was rejected for lack of historical information
about origins and lack of sufficient evidence to substantiate
the accuracy of its claims.
2. Though Buddhism has known historical origins in
regards to Gautama, it assumes a Hindu worldview, whose origins
are obscure. There is also a lack of sufficient evidence to
substantiate the accuracy of its claims.
3. Jainism is similar to Buddhism. Its immediate origins
in Vardhamana are known to us, but its roots in Hinduism are
uncertain and clouded. Likewise, there is also a lack of compelling
evidence to substantiate the accuracy of its claims.
4. Taoism was rejected due to a lack of historical
information about its origin. Additionally, like the other
Propositional religions, potential followers do not have objective
evidence to verify its claims, but are asked to accept Taoist
beliefs based upon circular reasoning and subjective experience.
5. Shintoism is also rejected because of a lack of
historically identifiable origin and a dependence upon subjective
experience. It lacks sufficient evidence to substantiate the
accuracy of its claims and also incorporates the beliefs of
many of other religions we have studied in this section.
6. Confucianism was rejected because it may only be
appropriate categorize it as a religion because of its incorporation
and therefore dependence upon the religious beliefs of other
theological systems, which we have discarded.
7. Sikhism was rejected for several reasons. First
it is the by-product of combining two conflicting and irreconcilable
religions, Hinduism and Islam. Second, Sikhism violates and
denies fundamental principles of at least one of its parent
religions, Islam, thereby undermining its own foundation.
Third, Sikhism provides no compelling or objectively verifiable
evidence that would persuade us to accept the accuracy of
its claims.
8. Babism and Baha'ism were rejected because of internal
inconsistencies that exist within themselves and with their
dependance upon Islam.
9. Zoroastrianism was rejected because of the historical
uncertainty of both its founder and origins as well as the
questionable authenticity of its known beliefs. Additionally,
it may also be said that there is in sufficient evidence to
substantiate the accuracy of its claims.
In summary, have rejected each of these religions for one
of several reasons. First, it was not possible to perform
an objective evaluation of the religions truth claims. In
some cases this was due to a lack of sufficient historical
information regarding the origin of the belief system. In
other cases no evidence was offered by the religion to substantiate
its truth claims. Second, in cases where historical information
was available, the information provided by the historical
record was found to not to have any corroborating relationship
to the accuracy of the truth claims. Third, internal contradiction
was found to undermine the claims of the belief system.
With this we finish our examination of Propositional religions.
Admittedly, we have not and cannot cover all the religious
concepts that have ever been offered or even all those that
might be proposed today. However, what we have attempted to
do is to cover the major world religions that have had significant
influence in the past as well as in modern times. Religions
that we have left out of our study will tend to borrow from
or be based upon concepts from one or several of those we
have looked at. Indeed, some of the Propositional religions
that we have looked at have done just that.
In this way those religions that we have not covered are disqualified
for similar reasons as those we have looked at. They will
tend not have historically identifiable origins. They may
not offer any objective evidence to substantiate their claims.
They will rely upon subjective experience to compel potential
followers to accept their truths. Their sacred texts may be
composed of highly corrupted, late dating, and/or fragmented
or few ancient manuscripts. Newer religions, will borrow from
older theological systems. More ancient religions will borrow
from still more obscure theological sources. They may contain
internal inconsistencies or in some way be in conflict with
a parent religion upon which they base their claims and authenticity.
Whatever the case may be, whatever the religion may be they
will tend to fail due to these same fatal flaws. Because of
this it is not necessary to discuss all of the potential religions
only those, which demonstrate the trend and provide the foundations
for those more obscure or less popular ones.
With that said, we will close our look at Propositional religions
by taking a brief look at a few more religions, which we may
categorize correctively as Neo-paganism.
Neo-paganism, the Occult, and Satanism
Neo-paganism is a term that is used to collectively refer
to the recent popular revival of pre-Christian religious practices
especially in the west. The prefix "neo" is not intended to
shift the meaning away from paganism. Religions of this category
are, in fact, attempts to reconstruct ancient paganism. As
such it is appropriate to simply refer to this group as paganism.
However, the prefix "neo" is useful in that it emphasizes
that modern pagans do not have a continuous connection to
their ancient predecessors. As such modern pagan religious
systems are all formed from a deliberate attempt to reconstruct
ancient pagan beliefs and practices from ancient sources.
The use of the prefix "neo" distinguishes between those ancient
religious systems, which developed naturally from the cultures
we find them in. And those of the modern era, which are synthetically
recreated for the most part as a reaction against the Christian
tradition.
"Neopaganism - any of several spiritual movements
that attempt to revive the ancient polytheistic religions
of Europe and the Middle East. These movements have a
close relationship to ritual magic and modern witchcraft.
Neo-Paganism differs from them, however, in striving to
revive authentic pantheons and rituals of ancient cultures,
though often in deliberately eclectic and reconstructionist
ways, and by a particularly contemplative and celebrative
attitude. Typically people with romantic feelings toward nature
and deep ecological concerns, Neo-Pagans centre their dramatic
and colourful rituals around the changes of the seasons and
the personification of nature as full of divine life,
as well as the holy days and motifs of the religions by which
their own groups are inspired." - Britannica.com
Additionally, while paganism itself is an ancient phenomenon,
the origin of modern Neo-pagan groups all date from within
the last few centuries, making them all relatively recent
in origin. This characteristic again is underscored by the
application of the prefix "neo," which simply means "new"
or "recent." (Another term that is commonly used to collectively
describe such groups is "the occult.")
"Neopaganism - polytheistic religious movement, practiced
in small groups by partisans of pre-Christian religious traditions
such as Egyptian, Greek, Norse, and Celtic. Neopagans fall
into two broad categories, nature-oriented and magical groups,
and often incorporate arcane and elaborate rituals. Two
of the movement's most influential thinkers were Alphonse
L. Constant (1810-75) and Gerard Encausse (1865-1916)."
- The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2001.
"Neopaganism - Modern Neo-Paganism has roots in
19th-century Romanticism and activities inspired by it,
such as the British Order of Druids (which, however, claims
an older lineage). Sometimes associated with extreme nationalism,
Neo-Pagan groups and sentiments were known in Europe before
World War II, but contemporary Neo-Paganism is for the
most part a product of the 1960s. Influenced by the works
of the psychiatrist Carl Jung and the writer Robert Graves,
Neo-Paganists are more interested in nature and archetypal
psychology than in nationalism." - Britannica.com
"Neopaganism - Neo-Paganism in the postwar decades
has flourished particularly in the United States and the United
Kingdom and in Scandinavia. Some of the major Neo-Pagan groups
are the Church of All Worlds, the largest of all the pagan
movements, which centres on worship of the earth-mother goddess;
Feraferia, based on ancient Greek religion and also centred
on goddess worship; Pagan Way, a nature religion centred on
goddess worship and the seasons; the Reformed Druids of
North America; the Church of the Eternal Source, which has
revived ancient Egyptian religion; and the Viking Brotherhood,
which celebrates Norse rites. Beginning in the late 1970s,
some feminists, open to feminine personifications of the deity,
became interested in witchcraft and Neo-Paganism." - Britannica.com
There are several main groups within Neo-paganism, including
Wicca, Druidry, Theosophy, and New Age Religion. As the quotes
above state, the two main characteristics of Neo-pagan groups
are affection for nature and the practice of magical arts.
These principal attributes are perhaps the most readily evident
and identifiable with witchcraft.
"Witchcraft - The origins of witchcraft in Europe
are found in the pre-Christian, pagan cults such as the
Teutonic nature cults; Roman religion; and the speculations
of the Gnostics (see Gnosticism), the Zoroastrians, and the
Manicheans. These religions and philosophies believed
in a power of evil and a power of good within the universe.
Later, among certain sects, the worship of good was repudiated
as false and misleading." - Britannica.com
"Witchcraft - In the 20th cent. there has been a
revival of witchcraft known as Wicca, or neopaganism.
This form of witchcraft has nothing to do with sorcery, and
is instead based on a reverence for nature, the worship
of a fertility goddess, a restrained hedonism, and group magic
aimed at healing. It rejects a belief in Satan as a product
of Christian doctrine that is incompatible with paganism."
- Britannica.com
"Witchcraft - 1a: the use of sorcery or magic
b: communication with the devil or with a familiar
2: an irresistible influence or fascination." - Merriam-Webster's
Online Dictionary
When one examines such occult groups it becomes evident their
connection with and reliance upon other ancient religious
systems, including some which we have looked at and will look
at later in this study. According to Britannica.com witchcraft
is in part rooted in Gnosticism, Zoroastrianism, and Manicheanism.
We have looked at Zoroastrianism already, and we will shortly
look at Gnosticism and Manicheanism.
Likewise, Druidry is also connected with some ancient religious
practices that we have already studied. This connection is
most evident in their belief that the human soul passed from
one person to another after death. This is similar to the
belief in reincarnation (also known as the transmigration
of souls or the process of death and rebirth), which is found
in Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and many other ancient eastern
and Asian religions.
"Druid - They studied ancient verse, natural philosophy,
astronomy, and the lore of the gods, some spending as much
as 20 years in training. The Druids' principal doctrine was
that the soul was immortal and passed at death from one
person into another." - Britannica.com
"Druid - The Druids were suppressed in Gaul by the
Romans under Tiberius (reigned AD 14-37) and probably in Britain
a little later. In Ireland they lost their priestly functions
after the coming of Christianity and survived as poets, historians,
and judges (filid, senchaidi, and brithemain). Many scholars
believe that the Hindu Brahman in the East and the Celtic
Druid in the West were lateral survivals of an ancient Indo-European
priesthood." - Britannica.com
Though technically it should be distinguished from Neo-paganism,
Satanism also can be discussed in this section because the
two often intersect within Occult circles. Satanism itself
is not expressly pagan because it presupposes a Christian
worldview, whereas Neo-paganism replaces that worldview by
attempting to revert to a more "ancient" one. However, Satanism
does share some common elements with Neo-paganism including
similar motivation (a reaction against the Christian tradition)
and the practice of magical arts or rites.
"Satanism - 1: innate wickedness: DIABOLISM
2: obsession with or affinity for evil; specifically:
the worship of Satan marked by the travesty of Christian rites."
- Merriam-Webster's Online Dictionary
"Satanism - The cult of Satan, or Satan worship,
is in part a survival of the ancient worship of demons and
in part a revolt against Christianity or the church. It rose
about the 12th cent. in Europe and reached its culmination
in the blasphemous ritual of the Black Mass, a desecration
of the Christian rite. The history of early Satanism is
obscure. It was revived in the reign of Louis XIV in France
and is still practiced by various groups throughout the world,
particularly in the United States. One of the largest and
most influential Satanic groups is the Church of Satan (1966),
founded by Anton LaVey in San Francisco. A splinter group,
the Temple of Set (1975), was organized by Michael Aquino.
Many Satanic groups, including the ones mentioned, attest
that such worship does not necessarily imply evil intentions,
but rather an alternative to the repressive morality of many
other religious groups. Such groups see no harm in their indulgence
in 'worldly pleasures' that other religions forbid. Other,
more severe brands of Satanism likely exist, although much
of the activity pegged as 'Satanic' has less to do with the
religion than with various forms of sociopathy. Indeed, reliable
research has found no evidence indicating the existence of
alarming, large-scale satanic phenomena. An unfortunate mistake
is the unfoundedÑyet commonÑlinkage of minority religious
traditions, such as the African-derived voodoo and Santer’a,
with Satanism. See also witchcraft." - The Columbia Encyclopedia,
Sixth Edition. 2001.
"Satanism - also called Devil Worship worship of
Satan, or the devil, the personality or principle regarded
by the Judeo-Christian tradition as embodying absolute evil
in complete antithesis to God. This worship may be regarded
as a gesture of extreme protest against Judeo-Christian
spiritual hegemony. Satanic cults have been documented
in Europe and America as far back as the 17th century,
but their earlier roots are difficult to trace, just as
the number of real satanists in any period is frequently overestimated.
Churchmen have readily attributed satanism to 'witches,' and
to such heretics as Gnostics, Cathars, and Bogomils, but that
charge does not correspond with the heretics' own understanding
of their beliefs, and the alleged satanism of those persecuted
in the heyday of witch-burning may rest on no better foundation
than the overheated imagination of witch-finders and confessions
obtained by torture. By the same token, devil worship ascribed
to non-Christian religions is usually based on polemic or
misunderstanding. Modern witchcraft and neopaganism are
not to be confused with satanism, since these groups worship
not Satan but pre-Christian gods. Satanism, as devotion to
the Judeo-Christian source of evil, can only exist in symbiosis
with that tradition, for it shares but inverts its worldview."
- Britannica.com
"Satanism - Satanist worship has traditionally centred
on the 'black mass,' a corrupted rendition of the Christian
Eucharist, and ritual magic evocations of Satan. Some
recent satanist groups have supplanted those practices with
rites of self-expression reminiscent of psychodrama and hyperventilation."
- Britannica.com
It is easy to disqualify these groups along with those we
have also studied for several reasons. First, they intentional
connect themselves with ancient religious systems, which we
have already rejected. Second, they employ a similar approach
to spirituality as those we have rejected so far, including
presumption and subjectivity as the principle means of accepting
their "truths." Third, the contrived nature of their modern
re-emergence clearly places them within category of Propositional
religions because they are artificially proposed in order
to simply create an alternative to the Christian tradition.
Our disqualification of these groups will be even more justified
when we consider two fundamental principles that unite all
Propositional religions, including Neo-paganism and Satanism,
into a single overarching theological system.
Mysticism and Syncretism
Having taken a look at nine Propositional religions along
with Neo-paganism and Satanism it may have already become
apparent that they all share quite a bit in common with each
one another. All the borrowed concepts, renamed deities, and
similar approaches to human spirituality do more then just
allow us to compare and reject them. These common traits actually
unite them into an overarching composite theological system
produced by their interconnection and interdependence with
one another.
We will now examine two of these traits, mysticism and syncretism,
so that later we can compare this composite theological system,
which we will call Propositional Mysticism, with what we will
later call Evidentiary Monotheism. As we examine these traits
we will also mention a few religious groups that exemplify
them and demonstrate the codependence and interrelatedness
of all Propositional religions, chief among these will be
Gnosticism and Manichaeism.
Before we establish the existence of Propositional Mysticism
from its sub-religions, which we have already studied, it
is first necessary to define what mysticism and syncretism
are. We will begin with mysticism. As we start please keep
in mind some of the religious teachings that we have studied
so far and how they exemplify these traits.
"Mysticism - the practice of those who are initiated
into the mysteries], the practice of putting oneself into,
and remaining in, direct relation with God, the Absolute,
or any unifying principle of life. Mysticism is inseparably
linked with religion. Because of the nature of mysticism,
firsthand objective studies of it are virtually impossible,
and students must confine themselves to the accounts of mystics,
autobiographical and biographical, or, as the mystics themselves
say, they must experience for themselves. - The Columbia
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition, 2001.
"Mysticism - in general, a spiritual quest for hidden
truth or wisdom, the goal of which is union with the divine
or sacred (the transcendent realm)." - Britannica.com
"Mysticism - 1: the experience of mystical union
or direct communion with ultimate reality reported by mystics.
2: the belief that direct knowledge of God, spiritual truth,
or ultimate reality can be attained through subjective experience
(as intuition or insight) 3a: vague speculation: a
belief without sound basis b: a theory postulating the
possibility of direct and intuitive acquisition of ineffable
knowledge or power." - Merriam-Webster's Online Dictionary
"Mysticism - The goal of mysticism is union with
the divine or sacred. The path to that union is usually developed
by following four stages: purgation (of bodily desires), purification
(of the will), illumination (of the mind), and unification
(of one's will or being with the divine). If 'the object
of man's existence is to be a Man, that is, to re-establish
the harmony which originally belonged between him and the
divinized state before the separation took place which disturbed
the equilibrium' (The Life and Doctrine of Paracelsus), mysticism
will always be a part of the way of return to the source
of being, a way of counteracting the experience of alienation."
- Britannica.com
"Mysticism - At once a praxis (technique) and a gnosis
(esoteric knowledge), mysticism consists of a way or discipline."
- Britannica.com
"Mysticism - Although mysticism has been the core
of Hinduism and Buddhism, it has been little more than
a minor strandÑand, frequently, a disturbing elementÑin Judaism,
Christianity, and Islam." - Britannica.com
As we can see Mysticism is not defined as simply the belief
in the existence of the divine, divine interaction, the miraculous,
or divine revelation. It has a much more specific notion in
mind. The above sources define Mysticism as any religious
system, which incorporates the idea that the believer can
transcend material existence and become one with God through
subjective, personal, or intuitive experience by participation
in mysteries or initiation rites.
But, besides these characteristics, our study of Propositional
religions also reveals that they tend to be syncretistic.
Syncretism can be understood as follows. "Syncretism
- 1: the combination of different forms of belief or practice."
- Merriam-Webster's Online Dictionary
"Syncretism - 1. Reconciliation or fusion of differing
systems of belief, as in philosophy or religion, especially
when success is partial or the result is heterogeneous. -
The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language:
Fourth Edition. 2000.
"Syncretism - the fusion of diverse religious beliefs
and practices. Instances of religious syncretismÑas,
for example, Gnosticism (a religious dualistic system that
incorporated elements from the Oriental mystery religions),
Judaism, Christianity, and Greek religious philosophical conceptsÑwere
particularly prevalent during the Hellenistic period (c. 300
BC-c. AD 300)." - Britannica.com
"Eclectisicm - in philosophy, the selection of elements
from different systems of thought, without regard to possible
contradictions between the systems. Eclecticism differs
from syncretism, which tries to combine various systems
while resolving conflicts. Many Roman philosophers, especially
Cicero, and the Neoplatonists were known for eclecticism."
- The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition, 2001.
So, Mysticism involves four principal traits, which are exhibited
in at least the larger, foundational, Propositional religions:
1. Dependence upon subjective, personal, or intuitive
experiences of the individual, rather than objective or historic
evidence, to validate their truth claims.
2. The goal of transcending material existence and
becoming one with the divine or ultimate reality, often inclusive
of escaping a cycle of death and rebirth.
3. A path or discipline, which usually involves the
purging of bodily desires, purification of the mind, illumination
of the mind, and ultimately unification with the divine.
4. The incorporation, combination, acceptance, or fusion
of different concepts and different belief systems.
From this we can see why many of the religions that we will
categorize as Propositional are in fact variations within
a larger mystical, theological system. To be clear, all religions
including Judaism, Christianity, and Islam have at least developed
mystical and syncretistic forms or sects. The question, however,
in determining whether a religion can be considered mystical
or syncretistic is not whether later forms of that religion
became mystical or incorporated concepts from other religious
systems, but the extent to which religious systems originate
through syncretistic processes and are founded upon mystical
concepts or approaches to spirituality as defined above.
Later as we discuss Judaism and Christianity we will demonstrate
that both originate from non-mystical events and experiences
and contain a strong prohibition against syncretism (the incorporation
of beliefs and practices from other religious systems). What
we will establish now, however, is the extent to which Propositional
religions, in contrast to these two Evidentiary religions,
originate from syncretistic processes and are founded upon
mystical principals. The earliest and foundational ones develop
guided by these principles from obscure historical circumstances.
The final quote above discussing mysticism (from Britannica.com)
articulated the mystical nature of Buddhism and Hinduism.
"Mysticism - Although mysticism has been the core
of Hinduism and Buddhism, it has been little more than
a minor strandÑand, frequently, a disturbing elementÑin Judaism,
Christianity, and Islam." - Britannica.com
We will now demonstrate the mystical nature of not only Buddhism
and Hinduism, but of the other main religions we have studied
in this section with more quotes from our familiar reference
sources. We will begin with Hinduism and continue through
the list of at least the major Propositional religions that
we have studied. In each case we will show that the specific
religion in view was formed from syncretistic processes and
inherently founded upon mystical principles about God, the
universe, and the spirituality of man (as we have defined
these two terms above.)
As we proceed it will also become more apparent the extent
to which these religions borrow and share fundamental concepts
from and with one another including, but not limited to: reincarnation,
karma, transcendence, a path of steps to achieve enlightenment,
the importance of subjective experience, a dualistic view
of God or the divine, some form of pantheism, polytheism in
the form of emanations of the supreme God, magical arts, mystical
rites, etc.
Hinduism
"Hinduism - Hinduism is a synthesis of the religion
brought into India by the Aryans (c.1500 B.C.) and indigenous
religion. The first phase of Hinduism was early Brahmanism,
the religion of the priests or Brahmans who performed the
Vedic sacrifice, through the power of which proper relation
with the gods and the cosmos is established. The Veda comprises
the liturgy and interpretation of the sacrifice and culminates
in the Upanishads, mystical and speculative works that
state the doctrine of Brahman, the absolute reality that is
the self of all things, and its identity with the individual
soul, or atman (see Vedanta)." - The Columbia Encyclopedia,
Sixth Edition. 2001.
"Hinduism - Post-Vedic Hinduism in all its forms accepts
the doctrine of karma, according to which the individual
reaps the results of his good and bad actions through a series
of lifetimes (see transmigration of souls). Also universally
accepted is the goal of moksha or mukti, liberation from suffering
and from the compulsion to rebirth, which is attainable through
elimination of passions and through knowledge of reality and
finally union with God." - The Columbia Encyclopedia,
Sixth Edition. 2001.
"Hinduism - The four stages of life are brahmacharya
or celibate student life (originally for study of the Veda),
grihastha or householdership, vanaprastha or forest hermitage,
and sannyasa, complete renunciation of all ties with society
and pursuit of spiritual liberation." - The Columbia Encyclopedia,
Sixth Edition. 2001.
"Hinduism - Magic rites, animal worship, and belief
in demons are often combined with the worship of more or less
personal gods or with mysticism, asceticism, and abstract
and profound theological systems or esoteric doctrines." -
Britannica.com
"Hinduism - Hindus believe in an uncreated, eternal,
infinite, transcendent, and all-embracing principle, which,
'comprising in itself being and non-being,' is the sole
reality, the ultimate cause and foundation, source, and goal
of all existence. This ultimate reality is called brahman.
As the All, brahman causes the universe and all beings to
emanate from itself, transforms itself into the universe,
or assumes its appearance. Brahman is in all things and is
the Self (atman) of all living beings. Brahman is the creator,
preserver, or transformer and reabsorber of everything.
Although it is Being in itself, without attributes and qualities
and hence impersonal, it may also be conceived of
as a personal high God, usually as Vishnu (Vis nu) or Siva.
This fundamental belief in and the essentially religious search
for ultimate realityÑi.e., the One that is the AllÑhave
continued almost unaltered for more than 30 centuries
and have been the central focus of India's spiritual life."
- Britannica.com
"Hinduism - Such doctrines encourage the view that
mundane life is not true existence and that human endeavour
should be directed toward a permanent interruption of the
mechanism of karma and transmigrationÑthat is, toward
final emancipation (moksha), toward escaping forever
from the impermanence that is an inescapable feature of mundane
existence. In this view the only goal is the one permanent
and eternal principle: the One, God, brahman, which is totally
opposite to any phenomenal existence. Anyone who has not fully
realized that his being is identical with brahman is thus
seen as deluded. The only possible solution consists in the
realization that the kernel of human personality (atman)
really is brahman and that it is their attachment to worldly
objects that prevents people from reaching salvation and eternal
peace. (Hindus sometimes use the largely Buddhist term
nirvana to describe this state.)" - Britannica.com
"Hinduism - In the middle of the first millennium
B.C., an ossified Brahmanism was challenged by heterodox,
i.e., non-Vedic, systems, notably Buddhism and Jainism.
The priestly elite responded by creating a synthesis that
accepted yogic practices and their goals, recognized the gods
and image worship of popular devotional movements, and
adopted greater concern for the daily life of the people."
- The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2001.
"Hinduism - the beliefs, practices, and socioreligious
institutions of the Hindus (originally, the inhabitants of
the land of the Indus River). Introduced in about 1830 by
British writers, the term properly denotes the Indian civilization
of approximately the last 2,000 years, which evolved from
Vedism, the religion of the Indo-European peoples who settled
in India in the last centuries of the 2nd millennium BC.
Because it integrates a variety of elements, Hinduism
constitutes a complex but largely continuous whole and has
religious, social, economic, literary, and artistic aspects.
As a religion, Hinduism is a composite of diverse doctrines,
cults, and ways of life." - Britannica.com
"Hinduism - In principle, Hinduism incorporates
all forms of belief and worship without necessitating the
selection or elimination of any. It is axiomatic that
no religious idea in India ever dies or is supersededÑit
is merely combined with the new ideas that arise in response
to it. Hindus are inclined to revere the divine in every manifestation,
whatever it may be, and are doctrinally tolerant, allowing
othersÑincluding both Hindus and non-HindusÑwhatever beliefs
suit them best. A Hindu may embrace a non-Hindu religion
without ceasing to be a Hindu, and because Hindus are disposed
to think synthetically and to regard other forms of worship,
strange gods, and divergent doctrines as inadequate rather
than wrong or objectionable, they tend to believe that the
highest divine powers complement one another. Few religious
ideas are considered to be irreconcilable. The core of
religion does not depend on the existence or nonexistence
of God or on whether there is one god or many. Because religious
truth is said to transcend all verbal definition, it is not
conceived in dogmatic terms. Moreover, the tendency of
Hindus to distinguish themselves from others on the basis
of practice (orthopraxy) rather than doctrine (orthodoxy)
further de-emphasizes doctrinal differences. " - Britannica.com
"Hinduism - Hinduism is both a civilization and a
congregation of religions; it has neither a beginning or founder,
nor a central authority, hierarchy, or organization." - Britannica.com
"Hinduism - The Rigveda contains many other Indo-European
elements, such as the worship of male sky gods with sacrifices
and the existence of the old sky god Dyaus, whose name
is cognate with those of the classical Zeus of Greece and
Jupiter of Rome ('Father Jove'). The Vedic heaven, the 'world
of the fathers,' resembled the Germanic Valhalla and seems
also to be an Indo-European inheritance." - Britannica.com
"Hinduism - The Indo-Iranian element in later Hinduism
is chiefly found in the initiatory ceremony (upanayana)
performed by boys of the three upper classes, a rite both
in Hinduism and in Zoroastrianism that involves the tying
of a sacred cord. The Vedic god Varuna, now an unimportant
sea god, appears in the Rigveda as sharing many features
of the Zoroastrian Ahura Mazda ('Wise Lord'); the hallucinogenic
sacred drink soma corresponds to the sacred haoma of Zoroastrianism."
- Britannica.com
"Hinduism - The Central Asian nomads who entered India
in the two centuries before and after the beginning of the
Christian Era might have influenced the growth of devotional
Hinduism out of Vedic religion. The classical Western
world directly affected Hindu religious art, and several
features of Hinduism can be traced to Zoroastrianism. The
influence of later Chinese Taoism on Tantric Hinduism
(an esoteric system of rituals for spiritual power) has been
suggested, though not proved. In more recent centuries,
the influence of Islam and Christianity on Hinduism can be
seen." - Britannica.com
"Hinduism - The Aryan conquerors lived side by side
with the indigenous inhabitants of the subcontinent, and many
features of Hinduism, as distinct from Vedic religion, may
have been adapted from the religions of the non-Aryan peoples
of India. The phallic emblem of the god Siva arose from
a combination of the phallic aspects of the Vedic god Indra
and a non-Vedic icon of early popular fertility cults.
Many features of Hindu mythology and several of the lesser
godsÑsuch as Ganesa, an elephant-headed god, and Hanuman ,
the monkey godÑwere incorporated into Hinduism and assimilated
into the appropriate Vedic gods by this means." - Britannica.com
The above quotes are sufficient to establish the mystical
and syncretistic nature of Hinduism in its continued practice
and current form, but most importantly in its origin. Hinduism's
mystical and syncretistic origins are even more significant,
however, because of the foundational place Hinduism has in
terms of its influence upon other Propositional religions,
such as Buddhism, which we will study next. And which we will
see fully embraces the mysticism and syncretism of its predecessor,
Hinduism.
Buddhism
"Buddhism - In his teaching, the Buddha strongly asserted
that the ontological status and character of the unconditioned
nirvana cannot be delineated in a way that does not distort
or misrepresent it. But what is more important is that he
asserted with even more insistence that nirvana can be experiencedÑand
experienced in this present existenceÑby those who, knowing
the Buddhist truth, practice the Buddhist path." - Britannica.com
"Buddhism - a religion of eastern and central Asia
growing out of the teaching of Gautama Buddha that suffering
is inherent in life and that one can be liberated from it
by mental and moral self-purification." - Merriam-Webster's
Online Dictionary
"Buddhism - The basic doctrines of early Buddhism,
which remain common to all Buddhism, include the 'four noble
truths': existence is suffering (dukhka); suffering has a
cause, namely craving and attachment (trishna); there is a
cessation of suffering, which is nirvana; and there is a path
to the cessation of suffering, the 'eightfold path' of
right views, right resolve, right speech, right action, right
livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right concentration."
- The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2001.
"Buddhism - The ideal of early Buddhism was the perfected
saintly sage, arahant or arhat, who attained liberation
by purifying self of all defilements and desires." - The
Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2001.
"Nirvana - in Indian religious thought, the
supreme goal of the meditation disciplines. The concept
is most characteristic of Buddhism, in which it signifies
the transcendent state of freedom achieved by the extinction
of desire and of individual consciousness. According to
the Buddhist analysis of the human situation, delusions of
egocentricity and their resultant desires bind man to a
continuous round of rebirths and its consequent suffering
(dukkha). It is release from these bonds that constitutes
Enlightenment, or the experience of Nirvana." - Britannica.com
"Buddhism - Buddhism accepts the pan-Indian presupposition
of samsara, in which living beings are trapped in a continual
cycle of birth-and-death, with the momentum to rebirth provided
by one's previous physical and mental actions (see karma).
The release from this cycle of rebirth and suffering is the
total transcendence called nirvana." - The Columbia Encyclopedia,
Sixth Edition. 2001.
"Buddhism - India during the lifetime of the Buddha
was in a state of religious and cultural ferment. Sects, teachers,
and wandering ascetics abounded, espousing widely varying
philosophical views and religious practices. Some of these
sects derived from the Brahmanical tradition (see Hinduism),
while others opposed the Vedic and Upanishadic ideas of that
tradition." - The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2001.
"Buddhism - The aim of religious practice is
to be rid of the delusion of ego, thus freeing oneself
from the fetters of this mundane world. One who is successful
in doing so is said to have overcome the round of rebirths
and to have achieved enlightenment. This is the final
goalÑnot a paradise or a heavenly world." - Britannica.com
"Nirvana - in Buddhism, Jainism, and Hinduism, a
state of supreme liberation and bliss, contrasted to samsara
or bondage in the repeating cycle of death and rebirth.
The word in Sanskrit refers to the going out of a flame once
its fuel has been consumed; it thus suggests both the end
of suffering and the cessation of desires that perpetuate
bondage. Epithets of nirvana in Buddhism include 'the free,'
'the immortal,' and 'the unconditioned.' Nirvana is attainable
in life, and the death of one who has attained it is termed
parinirvana, or complete nirvana. This has often been
interpreted as annihilation, but in fact the Buddhist scriptures
say that the state of the enlightened man beyond death cannot
be described. Nirvana in the different Indian traditions
is achieved by moral discipline and the practice of yoga
leading to the extinction of all attachment and ignorance.
See also karma." - The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
2001.
Though Buddhism is clearly mystical and syncretistic in its
own right, it does clearly borrow these traits from its predecessor,
Hinduism. However, Jainism, another Indian religion, which
developed under similar circumstance at about the same time
as Buddhism is also mystical and syncretistic, which makes
sense since it is also predicated upon Hinduism.
Jainism
"Jainism - Jaina tradition teaches that a succession
of 24 tirthankaras (saints) originated the religion. The last,
Vardhamana, called Mahavira [the great hero] and Jina [the
victor], seems to be historical. He preached a rigid asceticism
and solicitude for all life as a means of escaping the
cycle of rebirth, or the transmigration of souls. Thus released
from the rule of karma, the total consequences of past acts,
the soul attains nirvana, and hence salvation." - The
Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2001.
"Jainism - a religion of India originating in the 6th
century B.C. and teaching liberation of the soul by right
knowledge, right faith, and right conduct." - Merriam-Webster's
Online Dictionary
"Jainism - An ascetic religion of India, founded in
the sixth century B.C., that teaches the immortality and
transmigration of the soul and denies the existence of a perfect
or supreme being." - The American Heritage Dictionary
of the English Language: Fourth Edition. 2000.
"Jainism - a religion of India that teaches a path
to spiritual purity and enlightenment through a disciplined
mode of life founded upon the tradition of ahimsa, nonviolence
to all living creatures." - Britannica.com
"Jainism - The name Jainism derives from the
Sanskrit verb ji, 'to conquer.' It refers to the ascetic battle
that it is believed Jain renunciants (monks and nuns)
must fight against the passions and bodily senses to gain
omniscience and purity of soul or enlightenment. The most
illustrious of those few individuals who have achieved enlightenment
are called Jina (literally, 'Conqueror'), and the tradition's
monastic and lay adherents are called Jain ('Follower of the
Conquerors'), or Jaina. This term came to replace a more ancient
designation, Nirgrantha ('Bondless'), originally applied to
renunciants only." - Britannica.com
"Jainism - Even though Jain doctrine holds that
no one can achieve liberation in this corrupt time, the Jain
religious goal is the complete perfection and purification
of the soul. This, they believe, occurs only when the
soul is in a state of eternal liberation from corporeal
bodies. Liberation of the soul is impeded by the accumulation
of karmans, bits of material, generated by a person's actions,
that attach themselves to the soul and consequently bind it
to physical bodies through many births. This has the effect
of thwarting the full self-realization and freedom of the
soul. As a result, Jain renunciants do not seek immediate
enlightenment; instead, through disciplined and meritorious
practice of nonviolence, they pursue a human rebirth that
will bring them nearer to that state. To understand how
the Jains address this problem, it is first necessary to consider
the Jain conception of reality." - Britannica.com
"Jainism - Because of karman a soul is imprisoned
in a succession of bodies and passes through various stages
of spiritual development before becoming free from all karmic
bondage. These stages of development (gunasthanas) involve
progressive manifestations of the innate faculties of knowledge
and power and are accompanied by decreasing sinfulness and
increasing purity." - Britannica.com
"Jainism - In Jain thought, four stages of perception
Ñobservation, will to recognize, determination, and impressionÑlead
to subjective cognition (matijnana), the first of five kinds
of knowledge (jnana). The second kind, shrutajnana, derives
from the scriptures and general information. Both are mediated
cognition, based on external conditions perceived by the senses.
In addition there are three kinds of immediate knowledgeÑavadhi
(supersensory perception), manahparyaya (reading the thoughts
of others), and kevala (omniscience). Kevala is necessarily
accompanied by freedom from karmic obstruction and by direct
experience of the soul's pure form unblemished by attachment
to matter. Omniscience, the foremost attribute of a liberated
jiva, is the emblem of its purity; thus, a liberated soul,
such as a Tirthankara, is called a kevalin ('possessor
of omniscience'). However, not all kevalins are Tirthankaras:
becoming a Tirthankara requires the development of a particular
type of karmic destiny. For the Jains all knowledge short
of omniscience is flawed. Because reality is characterized
by arising, change, and decay, as opposed to simple permanence
(for the Hindus) and impermanence (for the Buddhists), the
Jains developed an epistemological system based on seven perspectives
(naya). This system, anekanta-vada, 'the many-pointed
doctrine,' takes into account the provisional nature of
mundane knowledge. To gain some approximation to reality,
a judgment must ideally be framed in accord with all seven
perspectives. According to Jainism, yoga, the ascetic
physical and meditative discipline of the monk, is the means
to attain omniscience and thus moksha, or liberation. Yoga
is the cultivation of true knowledge of reality, faith
in the teachings of the Tirthankaras, and pure conduct; it
is thus intimately connected to the Three Jewels (ratnatraya)
of right knowledge, right faith, and right practice (respectively,
samyagjnana, samyagdarshana, and samyakcaritra)." - Britannica.com
"Jainism - However, as time passed, the line between
Hindu and Jain became more and more unclear. Soon Hindu gods
such as Rama and Krishna were drawn into the Jaina pantheon,
and Hindu Brahmans began to preside at Jaina death and marriage
ceremonies and temple worship. The caste system, which primitive
Jainism had rejected, also became part of later Jaina doctrine."
- The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2001.
"Jainism - The Jains developed their own legendary
history, the Deeds of the 63 Illustrious Men, which Western
scholars call the Universal History. The most important figures
in this history are the 24 Tirthankaras, perfected human beings
who appear from time to time to preach and embody the faith.
Other important figures in the history are from the Hindu
tradition, most notably KrishnaÑregarded by the Jains as a
cousin of the 22nd Tirthankara, ArishtanemiÑand the hero Rama,
who is treated as a pious, nonviolent Jain. By incorporating
yet redefining such important Hindu figures, the Jains were
able to both remain part of and separate from the surrounding
Hindu world." - Britannica.com
"Jainism - Jainism, Hinduism, and Buddhism share
many key concepts derived from the Sanskrit language and
dialects that have enabled them to hone their religious debates.
For example, all three traditions share a notion of karman
as the actions of individuals that determine their future
births; yet each has attached unique connotations to the
concept. This is also true with terms such as dharma
(often translated 'duty,' 'righteousness,' or 'religious path'),
yoga ('ascetic discipline'), and yajna ('sacrifice,' or 'worship')."
- Britannica.com
The above quotes inform us that Jainism is even more syncretistic
than Buddhism. This is because after emerging from Hinduism,
Jainism later occasionally fused with Hinduism so that the
two were at times indistinct from one another. With that said,
we will now move on to the next religion that we have previously
studied, Taoism.
