Basic
Worldview:
103
Science, the Bible,
and Creation
Origins
- Section Four:
The Geologic Column
Origins - Section One: Introduction
and the Basics
Origins - Section Two: Premature
Dismissals
Origins - Section Two: Application
of the Basics
Origins - Section Three: Creation
Origins - Section Three: Evolution,
Origin of Life
Origins - Section Three: Evolution,
Environment for Life 1
Origins - Section Three: Evolution,
Environment for Life 2
Origins - Section Three: Evolution,
Another Planet
Origins - Section Three: Evolution,
Origin of Species
Origins - Section Three: Evolution,
Speciation Factors
Origins - Section Three: Evolution,
Speciation Rates
Origins - Section Four: Time and
Age, Redshift
Origins - Section Four: Philosophical
Preference
Origins - Section Four: Cosmological
Model 1
Origins - Section Four: Cosmological
Model 2
Origins - Section Four: Dating Methods,
Perceptions, Basics
Origins - Section Four: Global Flood
Evidence
Origins - Section Four: Relative
Dating
Origins - Section Four: Dating and
Circular Reasoning
Origins - Section Four: The Geologic
Column
Origins - Section Four: Radiometric
Dating Basics
Origins - Section Four: General
Radiometric Problems
Origins - Section Four: Carbon-14
Problems
Origins - Section Four: Remaining
Methods and Decay Rates
Origins - Section Four: Radiometric
Conclusions, Other Methods
Origins - Section Five: Overall
Conclusions, Closing Editorial
Origins - Section Five: List
of Evidences Table
Origins Debate Figures and
Illustrations
Focus
on Critical Evidence: Age and the Geologic Column
In
an earlier segment, we examined the evidence for the evolutionary
origin of species and established that the evolutionary timescale
lacks transitional or intermediate forms. And in the last
segment, we repeatedly established that evolution’s
timescale is based solely upon hypothetical ages asserted
through relative dating methods, such as stratigraphy and
the principle of faunal succession, which is a synonym for
evolution itself. We also saw how relative dating methods
are purely speculative due to the fact that, by their very
nature, they cannot indicate any actual age or actual length
of time. Consequently, we also saw that radioactive dates
are constructed simply to give the otherwise baseless relative
timescale a superficial appearance of finality by providing
adjusted ages in years that were tailor-made to fit the relative
timescale. As such, the previous segment simply discussed
the problems facing the evolutionary timescale due to its
basis in circular reasoning.
However,
since our focus at this point is on the evidence for the age
of the earth and evolution’s timescale is often either
presented or perceived as evidence concerning the earth’s
age, we need to spend some time understanding the timescale
itself. As such, this segment will explore what the evolutionary
timescale is and how it is constructed in more detail.
The
first question in this section is what is the evolutionary
timescale? The evolutionary timescale is known as the geologic
column, as we have mentioned previously. It usually looks
something like the following example, provided by Microsoft
Encarta.
“[PHOTO
CAPTION] © Microsoft Corporation. All Rights Reserved.”
– "Geologic Time Scale," Microsoft® Encarta®
Encyclopedia 99. © 1993-1998 Microsoft Corporation. All rights
reserved.
From
this point forward, our discussion of the geologic column
will be divided into 2 main portions. First, we will explore
how the geologic column is created, exactly where the geologic
does and does not come from. And second, we will take a closer
look at the severely-limited information that is being used
to construct the geologic column, at which point we will understand
why one quote below asserts that the geologic column is based
upon some pretty “clever detective work.”
As
we turn our attention to the issue of how the geologic column
is created, there are several items are worth noting from
geologic column chart above. First, we notice that, starting
on the left, it divides all of geologic history into 3 large
durations of time. Then, moving toward the right column by
column, it further subdivides each larger duration into smaller
durations of time. Second, at the far right, we notice that
each of the divisions of time is associated with the arrival
of new and distinct organisms. Here it is important to recognize
that the geologic column is the conclusion that results from
evolutionary theory and its timescale assumptions. And as
we can see, this conclusion is defined by its arrangement
of distinct collections of organisms in different time periods.
Yet, this is also the very definition of “the principle
of faunal succession,” which states that “each
interval of geologic history had a unique fauna” associated
with it.
Dating,
General considerations, Correlation, Principles and techniques
– To this day, fossils are useful as correlation
tools to geologists specializing in stratigraphy. In dating
the past, the primary
value of fossils lies within the principle of faunal succession:
each interval of geologic history had a unique fauna that
associates a given fossiliferous rock with that particular
interval. The basic conceptual tool for correlation by fossils
is the index, or guide, fossil…Almost without exception,
the relative order of strata defined by
fossils has been confirmed by radiometric ages.”
– Encyclopaedia Britannica 2004 Deluxe Edition
As
we examine the quotes throughout this portion, which describe
how the geologic column is formed, it will be important to
keep in mind this definition of faunal succession and the
fact that faunal succession is merely a synonym for evolution.
Since the principle of faunal succession is one of the principles
of geology that is used to construct the geologic column,
we can see that the evolutionary idea that species have evolved
into distinct forms in different time periods is actually
assumed as part of the premises used to prove the very same
idea as the conclusion, a conclusion that is manifest as the
geologic column. So, once again, we see the circular reasoning
inherent to the arguments for evolution.
Third,
we also notice that just to the right of center, the geologic
column chart above has years assigned to each division of
time. In particular, notice that the years are large, round
numbers. As we saw in the previous section, when a sample
is collected from a particular site in the field, its specific
relative age in this geologic column is noted and sent to
the radiometric dating lab, information which the dating lab
then uses to render an absolute age that fits within these
large, round numbers on the geologic column that have already
been identified for them.
As
we further consider the contents of the geologic column, we
take note of its divisions of time. Specifically, the largest
divisions of time are called “eons.” There are
3 eons: the Archean, the Proterozoic, and the Phanerozoic.
“Geologic
Time, II DIVISION OF TIME – The eons of the earth
are the Archean, the Proterozoic, and the Phanerozoic.
The Archean, the earliest eon, is defined as 4.6 billion to
2.5 billion years before present. Its beginning is marked
by the formation of the earth, but no event or specific formation
marks the division between the Archean and the Proterozoic
Eons.” – "Geologic Time," Microsoft®
Encarta® Encyclopedia 99. © 1993-1998 Microsoft Corporation.
All rights reserved.
Next,
we notice that each eon is further subdivided into eras, the
second largest duration of time. Of all the eras, we should
take special note of the eras of the Phanerozoic Eon. As stated
by the quote below, the earliest era of the Phanerozoic Eon
is the Paleozoic Era.
“Geologic
Time, II DIVISION OF TIME – The Phanerozoic Eon is divided
into the Paleozoic (570 million to 245 million years before
present), Mesozoic (245 million to 65 million
years before present), and Cenozoic
(65 million years before present to present) Eras.”
– "Geologic Time," Microsoft® Encarta® Encyclopedia
99. © 1993-1998 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.
The
reason that we are focusing on the Phanerozoic Eon centers
on the next largest division of time, which are known as “periods.”
The first period of the Paleozoic Era, and in fact the first
period of the entire Phanerozoic Eon, is the Cambrian Period.
“Geologic
Time, II DIVISION OF TIME – The Paleozoic Era is divided
into six periods. From oldest to youngest they are the
Cambrian (570 million to 500 million years before present), Ordovician (500 million to 435 million
years before present), Silurian
(435 million to 410 million years before present), Devonian (410 million to 380 million years before present), Carboniferous (380 million to 290 million
years before present), and Permian
(290 million to 240 million years before present). The Paleozoic
began with the appearance of many different life-forms, which
are preserved as abundant fossils in rock sequences all over
the world. It ended with the extinction of over 90 percent
of all living organisms at the end of the Permian Period.
The cause of this event is currently unknown.” –
"Geologic Time," Microsoft® Encarta® Encyclopedia
99. © 1993-1998 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.
As
we can see from the quotes above, the Cambrian Period, The
Paleozoic Era, and the Phanerozoic Eon all begin approximately
570 million years ago. The reason for our focus on this particular
set of time durations is that the start of the Cambrian Period
at 570 million years ago constitutes an important dividing
line for geologic time, as we will see later on throughout
this section.
The
next point is extremely significant to understanding the geologic
column as a potential piece of evidence. This point deals
with the perception that the geologic column is an actual
observation or physical structure that can be found and seen
somewhere on earth. The fact is that the geologic column is
not an actual physical object. It does not exist anywhere.
Instead it is the end product of relative dating methods (which
are hypothetically constructed from evolution theory.) As
Britannica states, the geologic column is a “mental
abstraction,” not an actual find in a single location or any handful of locations.
“Dating,
General considerations, Correlation, Geologic column and its
associated time scale – The
end product of correlation is a mental abstraction called
the geologic column. It is the result of integrating all the
world's individual rock sequences into a single sequence.”
– Encyclopaedia Britannica 2004 Deluxe Edition
As
we continue to examine just what the geologic column is, we
should note from the quote above that the geologic column
is “the result of integrating all the world’s
individual rock sequences into a single sequence.” In
other words, this sequence doesn’t exist anywhere in
the real world, but is a mere mental assembly of how those
individual rock sequences might look if they were all arranged
into a single picture. And the primary problem is the process
for how those individual sequences are integrated into a single
sequence.
It
should be noted that physical features of the rocks themselves
cannot be used to discover the order of rock layers beyond
each individual, local site.
“Dating,
General considerations, Correlation, Principles and techniques
– Correlation based on the physical features of the
rock record also has been used with some success, but it is
restricted to small areas that generally extend no more than
several hundred kilometres.” – Encyclopaedia
Britannica 2004 Deluxe Edition
Because
the features of the rocks themselves cannot be used to integrate
individual rock sites into a single sequence, what is used
to accomplish this task? The answer, as we have seen before,
is “fossils.” Fossils are the primary tool in
process of integrating or correlating all of the world’s
individual, local rock sequences into a single sequence.
The
first quote below specifically states that because of the
inherent properties of sedimentary rock, “the fossil
record from many localities has to be integrated before a
complete picture” of the geologic column “can
be assembled.” We also note that according to the quote,
fossils were not available in enough quantity to do this until
around 600 million years ago, which as we mentioned before
is around the start of the Cambrian Period. Lastly, notice
that the quote below specifically states that integrating
the world’s individual rock sequences into one sequence
is no easy, straightforward, obvious, or simple procedure
but instead involves “complex sequenes” that are
only possible through “clever detective work”
regarding fossils. In the next portion of this segment, we
will see why “clever detective work” is required
when we take a closer look at the severely limited information
that is being used to construct the geologic column.
“Dating,
General considerations, Distinctions between relative-age
and absolute-age measurements – Local
relationships on a single outcrop or archaeological site can
often be interpreted to deduce the sequence in which the materials
were assembled…Although with
clever detective work many complex time sequences or relative
ages can be deduced, the ability to show that objects at two
separated sites were formed at the same time requires additional
information…In addition, because sediment deposition is not continuous
and much rock material has been removed by erosion, the fossil
record from many localities has to be integrated before a
complete picture of the evolution of life on Earth can be
assembled. Using this established record, geologists have
been able to piece together events over the past 600 million
years, or about one-eighth of Earth history, during which
time useful fossils have been abundant.”
– Encyclopaedia Britannica 2004 Deluxe Edition
The
next 2 quotes also affirm that “the principle of faunal
correlation” is the means by which individual, local
rock sequences are integrated into a larger sequence. Notice
that the quotes refer to this principle as a principle of
biostratigraphy. As noted in the previous segment, “biostratigraphy”
merely a synonym for faunal succession which itself is merely
a synonym for evolution. As such, if we remove the use of
synonyms, what clearly emerges is that evolution is the essential
principle that is used to integrate all of the world’s
individual rock sequences into the single sequence called
the geologic column.
“Geology,
III THE GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE, C Correlation – Using correlation to determine which rocks are of equal age is important
for reconstructing
snapshots in geologic history…Fossils
are the most useful tools for correlation. Since the work of Smith and Cuvier, biostratigraphers have noted that
"like fossils are of like age." This is the principle of fossil correlation.” – "Geology,"
Microsoft® Encarta® Encyclopedia 99. © 1993-1998 Microsoft
Corporation. All rights reserved.
“Geology,
V Fields of Geology, B Historical Geology, B1 Stratigraphy
– Stratigraphy may be subdivided into a number
of fields. Biostratigraphy is the use of fossils for age determination
and correlation of rock layers…” – "Geology,"
Microsoft® Encarta® Encyclopedia 99. © 1993-1998 Microsoft
Corporation. All rights reserved.
The
quote below, which we have already seen above, even more specifically
describes how the actual units of time in the geologic column,
such as “periods,” are constructed according to
“significant changes in fossil forms.” The division
of time into distinct periods based upon fossil forms is the
very definition of faunal succession, as we established above.
“Dating,
General considerations, Correlation, Geologic column and its
associated time scale – The
end product of correlation is a mental abstraction called
the geologic column. It is the result of integrating all the
world's individual rock sequences into a single sequence.
In order to communicate the fine structure of this so-called
column, it has been
subdivided into smaller units. Lines are drawn on the basis
of either significant changes in fossil forms or discontinuities
in the rock record (i.e., unconformities, or large gaps in the sedimentary sequence);
the basic subdivisions of rock are called systems, and the corresponding time intervals are termed periods.” –
Encyclopaedia Britannica 2004 Deluxe Edition
Furthermore,
according to the quote below, not only are “periods”
created based upon the principle of faunal succession, but
all of the divisions of time in the geologic column were created
around this interpretive view regarding fossils.
“Dating
Methods, II DEVELOPMENT OF RELATIVE AND ABSOLUTE METHODS
– The relative scale was devised mainly by
application of the principles of stratigraphy. An example
of these is the law of superposition, which simply states
that in an undisturbed succession of strata, the youngest
beds are on top and the oldest on bottom (or, the higher beds
are younger than the lower). Based
on the fossils they contain, strata in one area were correlated
with those in other areas. As more and more such correlations
were made, geologists began to make broad groupings of strata,
which became the basis for dividing geologic time into vast
blocks. Thus, the history of the earth was divided into four
broad eras-Pre-cambrian, Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic;
the eras were in turn divided into a number of periods (see
Geology).” – "Dating Methods," Microsoft®
Encarta® Encyclopedia 99. © 1993-1998 Microsoft Corporation.
All rights reserved.
So,
as we have stated, faunal succession, a synonym for evolution
itself, is a required principle for creating the geologic
column, just as the following quote summarizes.
“Stratigraphy,
II PRINCIPLES OF STRATIGRAPHY – Stratigraphy relies on four simple principles to unveil geologic history…The
principle of faunal and floral succession states that because
animals and plants evolve into new species, sedimentary
rocks of different ages will contain fossils of different
species. Knowing the age of a fossil helps to date the
rock in which it is found…These four principles of stratigraphy
can be used to unravel the geologic history of a given area.”
– "Stratigraphy," Microsoft® Encarta® Encyclopedia
99. © 1993-1998 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.
At
this point, we have completed the first main portion of this
segment. As we have established above, the individual rock
sequences of the world can only be integrated (or correlated)
into a single rock sequence known as the geologic column by
using evolution itself as a guiding principle for the integration.
In the next portion, we will take a closer look at the severely-limited
information that is being used to construct the geologic column,
and consequently, why constructing the geologic column requires
“clever detective work.”
Statements
about the informative nature of fossils, particularly their
role as indicators of the geologic column, often create impressions,
such as those included in the quotes below.
“Fossil
– It is often apparent that each
layer in such a sequence contains fossils that are distinct
from those of the layers that are above and below it. In such
sequences of layers in different geographic locations, the
same, or similar, fossil floras or faunas occur in the identical
order. By comparing overlapping sequences, it is possible
to build up a continuous record of faunas and floras that
have progressively more in common with present-day life forms
as the top of the sequence is approached.” – Encyclopaedia
Britannica 2004 Deluxe Edition
“Index
Fossil, IV USE OF INDEX FOSSILS – British geologist
William Smith was the first person known to employ the concept
of index fossils. He noted that rock layers could not be reliably
identified from rock type alone. By using both rock type and the unique group
of fossils present in each layer, he was successful in recognizing
individual rock layers across broad geographic areas. Smith
also noted that the sequence of fossils always appeared in
the same order.” – "Index Fossil,"
Microsoft® Encarta® Encyclopedia 99. © 1993-1998 Microsoft
Corporation. All rights reserved.
Here,
we note that both of the exerpts above assert that all around
the world fossils are found “in identical order”
or “always in the same order.” Moreover, other
statements further assert that this “identical order”
is from “more primitive” to “more complex.”
“Fossil,
How fossils reveal the past – In undisturbed strata,
fossils in the lower-and thus older-layers
are more primitive than those in the younger strata found
nearer the surface.” – Contributor: Steven
M. Stanley, Ph.D., Professor of Earth and Planetary Sciences,
Johns Hopkins
University.
Stating
that fossils are always found in the same order is directly
linked to the role of the geologic column as an integration
of fossil sites into a single sequence. After all, if fossil
sequences all around the world are always in the same order,
then really there is only one sequence of fossils to begin
with and the work of constructing the geologic column is largely
already finished because that single, recurring sequence of
fossils is apparent everywhere. Or, at least that is the impression
often created by such statements.
However,
these types of statements, as well the impressions that potentially
result from them, suffer from 2 problems. The first is a problem
in which the evidence and the interpretation are being confused.
The second is a problem of oversimplification. As we will
see, a more detailed description of the actual fossil evidence
creates an altogether different impression, one in which the
fossil evidence is not so clear or helpful when it comes to
constructing a single, overall sequence (the geologic column).
Concerning
the first problem, even if we were to take the oversimplified
impression at face value, it is still necessary to distinguish
between the actual evidence and the interpretation of that
evidence. More specifically, even if every fossil site around
the world always had the exact same fossils in the exact same
order, the only information this would provide is the order
itself. It would not indicate how the fossils came to be in
that order or how long it took the worldwide fossil record
to form. That is the difference between the evidence, which
is the order itself, and the interpretation, which is an explanation
of how or why that order came about.
On
this note, there are really 2 interpretations for the order
of fossils in which simpler organisms appear farther down
and more complex organisms appear higher up. The first interpretation
is the evolutionary notion of faunal succession. In short,
organisms evolved over time from simple to complex. The simple
organisms were around earlier and, therefore, simple organisms
are found deeper, in the older layers of the fossil record
while the more complex organisms that evolved more recently
are found in the higher, younger layers of rock. Essentially,
the fossil order is explained as a preservation of the order
of death and burial. And even more essentially, evolution
is the mechanism causing the order to go from more simple
to more complex.
However,
the creationist theory asserts that the mechanism for the
order is the global or near global flood. Furthermore, several
factors or a combination of them are identified as causing
simpler organisms to be buried lower than more complex organisms.
The first organisms likely to be buried by flood sediments
are those organisms that are already located in the ground
or at the surface of the ground, that are less intelligent,
that are less able to avoid drowning, and less bouyant or
more dense. These factors are likely to contribute to a general
pattern in which simpler organisms which are less mobile and
already located at ground level will be the first to be buried
in the lowest sedimentary rock layers while more complex,
more mobile animals are able to swim or avoid drowning for
longer amounts of time and will be buried in higher sedimentary
layers.
Consequently,
both the evolutionary interpretation and the creationist interpretation
describe the fossil order as an order of death and burial.
The only difference is the rate at which the death and burial
occurred. Was it over millions and millions and billions of
years or was it relatively quick, within a period of months?
But
most importantly, even without taking issue with the oversimplification
that fossils are always found in the identical order with
simpler organisms lower and more complex organisms higher,
this order in and of itself does not prove either evolution
or creationism. Both theories have an adequate explanation
for why this order exists. To confuse the order itself with
the interpretation for why that order came about is simply
an error in critical thinking. To do so would be a classic
case of confusing the evidence with the interpretation.
This
brings us to the second problem inherent to statements about
the “identical order” in which fossils are found
around the world. That second problem is the oversimplification
itself. As stated before, the oversimplified statement that
fossils are found an “identical order” at every
site all around the world creates the impression that correlating
or integrating all the fossil sites into a single sequence
is already complete in the natural world itself. After all,
if fossils “always appear in the same order” even
“across broad geographic areas” as stated in the
quotes above, then the single sequence of fossils is not a
mere “mental abstraction” as Britannica described
it, but a reality in each of the physical, observable rock
layers of the world.
However,
when a closer look is taken at the actual content of the fossil
record, this oversimplification dissolves. And instead of
the impression that the the physical, real-world fossil record
already reveals the single sequence of fossils, we are left
with the fact that as it exists in the real world the fossil
record faces several insurmountable problems that prevent
it from providing any real indications of a single fossil
sequence, let alone the entire geologic column of earth’s
history.
The
first problem that prevents the fossil record from revealing
any single, overarching fossil or geologic history is the
fact that the vast majority, some 87 percent, of the biological
history of the earth is not recorded in the fossil record.
Consequently, the sequence in the rock layers starts with
almost the first nine-tenths of the record missing. Specifically,
notice that fossils do not become prevalent enough to reconstruct
any type of history until 570 million years ago, which marks
the start of the Cambrian Period (the first timeframe of the
Phanerozoic Eon), as we stated near the beginning of this
segment. The rest of evolutionary geologic time is known collectively
as “Precambrian time” and is in part defined by
its lack of fossils.
In
contrast to the bold assertion above that “the sequence
of fossils always appeared in the same order” even “across
broad geographic areas,” notice that the last quote
below regards the possibility for identifying a single sequence
as an “optimistic hope” that will not likely ever
be achieved.
“Geology,
III THE GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE, B Biostratigraphy –Biostratigraphy is most useful for determining geologic time during
the Phanerozoic Eon (Greek phaneros, "evident";
zoic, "life"), the
time of visible and abundant fossil life that has lasted for
about the past 570 million years.” – "Geology,"
Microsoft® Encarta® Encyclopedia 99. © 1993-1998 Microsoft
Corporation. All rights reserved.
“Geologic
Time, I INTRODUCTION – Most
boundaries in recent geologic time coincide with periodic
extinctions and appearances of new species…II DIVISION
OF TIME – An explosion of invertebrate life marks
the end of the Proterozoic and the beginning of the Phanerozoic. The Phanerozoic
Eon started 570 million years before present and continues
into the present…The
Phanerozoic Eon is divided into the Paleozoic (570 million
to 245 million years before present), Mesozoic (245 million
to 65 million years before present), and Cenozoic (65 million
years before present to present) Eras…The Paleozoic began with the appearance
of many different life-forms, which are preserved as abundant
fossils in rock sequences all over the world.” –
"Geologic Time," Microsoft® Encarta® Encyclopedia
99. © 1993-1998 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.
“Dating,
General considerations, Correlation, Principles and techniques
– Correlation is, as mentioned earlier,
the technique of piecing
together the informational content of separated outcrops.
When information derived from two outcrops is integrated, the time interval they represent is
probably greater than
that of each alone. Presumably if all the world's outcrops
were integrated, sediments representing all of geologic time
would be available for examination. This optimistic hope,
however, must be tempered
by the realization that much of the Precambrian record—older
than 570 million years—is missing.” –
Encyclopaedia Britannica 2004 Deluxe Edition
And
while the quote above is somewhat vague, stating simply that
“much of” the fossil record from the Precambrian
timeframe “is missing,” the quote below is much
more explicit, stating in fact that the Precambrian “is
nearly devoid of characteristic fossil remains” that
are necessary for integrating the world’s rock sequences
into a single sequence.
“Geochronology,
Development of radioactive dating methods and their application
– Approximately the first 87 percent of Earth
history occurred before the evolutionary development of shell-bearing
organisms. The result of this mineralogic control on the preservability of organic remains in the rock record is that the
geologic time scale—essentially a measure of biologic
changes through time—takes in only the last 13 percent
of Earth history. Although the span of time preceding
the Cambrian period—the
Precambrian—is nearly devoid of characteristic fossil remains and coincides
with some of the primary rocks of certain early workers, it
must, nevertheless, be evaluated in its temporal context.”
– Encyclopaedia Britannica 2004 Deluxe Edition
Notice
that the quote above also stipulates that this is the case
for the first 87 percent of earth history. And the reason
for the absence of fossils in the first 87 percent of earth
history is attributed to absence of hard body parts, such
as shells. The quote below explains further that prior to
“about 650 million years ago” life-forms were
comprised mostly of “soft parts, such as jellyfish and
worms” which lacked the hard parts necessary for preservation
in the fossil record.
“Earth,
geologic history of, Development of the atmosphere and oceans,
Formation of the secondary atmosphere – The first
microscopic eukaryotes appeared about 1.4 billion years ago.
Life-forms with soft
parts, such as jellyfish and worms, developed in profusion,
albeit locally, toward the end of the Precambrian about 650
million years ago, and it is estimated that this corresponds
to an oxygen level of 0.1 PAL.” – Encyclopaedia
Britannica 2004 Deluxe Edition
In
fact, the trilobite is a primary example of this trend. As
the following quote describes, the trilobite, one of the earliest
organisms in the fossil record, had an “external skeleton,”
which were readily preserved in the fossil record because
of their hard composition.
“Trilobite
– any member of a group of extinct fossil arthropods
easily recognized by their distinctive three-lobed, three-segmented
form. Trilobites, exclusively marine animals, first appeared at the beginning of the Cambrian Period, about 540 million
years ago, when
they dominated the seas. Although they became less abundant
in succeeding geologic periods, a few forms persisted into
the Permian Period, which ended about 245 million years ago.
Because trilobites appear fully developed in the Cambrian
Period, it appears likely that the ancestral trilobites originated
during the Precambrian (3.96 billion to 540 millionyears ago)…Trilobites
are frequently used for stratigraphic correlations…Trilobites, like other arthropods, had an
external skeleton, called exoskeleton, composed of chitinous
material. For the animal to grow, the exoskeleton
had to be shed, and shed trilobite exoskeletons, or portions
of them, are fossils that are relatively common.”
– Encyclopaedia Britannica 2004 Deluxe Edition
The
next quote below limits the sufficient quantity of fossils
to only 500 million years ago, rather than the 570 million
years asserted above, effectively reducing the time by one-sixth
or 16 percent.
“Geology,
V FIELDS OF GEOLOGY, B Historical, B4 Paleontology and Paleobiology
– The oldest fossils are older than 3 billion years,
although fossils do not become abundant and diverse until about 500
million years ago.” – "Geology,"
Microsoft® Encarta® Encyclopedia 99. © 1993-1998 Microsoft
Corporation. All rights reserved.
Furthermore,
although generously asserting a timeframe of 600 million years
instead of merely 500 million years, the following 2 quotes
affirm that arranging an integrated picture of life on earth
prior to 600 million years ago is simply not possible from
the fossil record.
“Dating,
General considerations, Distinctions between relative-age
and absolute-age measurements – In addition, because
sediment deposition is not continuous and much rock material
has been removed by erosion, the fossil record from many localities has
to be integrated before a complete picture of the evolution
of life on Earth can be assembled. Using
this established record, geologists have been able to piece
together events over the past 600 million years, or about
one-eighth of Earth history, during which time useful fossils
have been abundant.” – Encyclopaedia Britannica
2004 Deluxe Edition
“Life, The origin of life, The antiquity
of life – The fossil record, in any complete sense,
goes back only about 600,000,000 years.” – Encyclopaedia
Britannica 2004 Deluxe Edition
And
finally, the quote below asserts that “Fossils became
abundant” only about 544 to 505 million years ago, so
that the first sixth of the 600 million year “datable”
timeframe is based upon “only a few kinds of organisms.”
“Earth
[planet], History of Earth – The known history of
Earth is divided into four long stretches of time called eons.
Starting with the earliest, the eons are Hadean, Archean,
Proterozoic, and Phanerozoic. The first three eons, which together lasted nearly 4 billion years,
are grouped into a unit called the Precambrian. The Phanerozoic
Eon, when life became abundant, is divided into three eras…The Paleozoic Era – Fossils become abundant in Cambrian rocks
that are about 544 million to 505 million years old. This
apparently sudden expansion in the number of life forms in
the fossil record is called the Cambrian Explosion, and it
marks the beginning of the Paleozoic Era. The Cambrian Explosion actually occurred
over tens of millions of years, but it appears sudden in the fossil record. The earliest abundant fossils consist of only a few kinds of organisms.
Over the course of hundreds of millions of years, the
number of species increases gradually in the fossil record.”
– Worldbook, Contributor: Steven I. Dutch, Ph.D., Professor,
Department of Natural and Applied Sciences, University
of Wisconsin, Green Bay.
So,
as we can see, the first obstacle to constructing a single,
sequence of geologic history of life on earth from the fossil
record stems from the fact that the fossil record could not
date nearly the first 90 percent of earth’s history.
The
second problem that prevents the fossil record from revealing
any single, overarching fossil or geologic history is the
fact that even the fossil record we do have for a little more
than one-tenth of evolutionary time itself contains “significant
changes or discontinuities” which are breaks, “unconformities,
or large gaps in the sedimentary sequence” even in the
strata of local sites. Consequently, not only is nearly 90
percent of earth’s history not recorded in the fossil
record, but even the tail end of the sequence is missing huge
chunks and periods of biological history. The following quotes
all attest to the fact that the existing fossil record is
plagued with significant gaps and discontinuities between
one local site and another.
(For
an illustration of the following quotes see Gaps
in the Fossil Record Figure 1.)
“Dating,
General considerations, Distinctions between relative-age
and absolute-age measurements – Local relationships
on a single outcrop or archaeological site can often be
interpreted to deduce the sequence in which the materials
were assembled…In addition, because sediment deposition is not continuous and much rock material
has been removed by erosion, the fossil record from many localities
has to be integrated before a complete picture of the evolution
of life on Earth can be assembled. Using
this established record, geologists have been able to piece
together events over the past 600 million years, or about
one-eighth of Earth history, during which time useful fossils have been abundant.”
– Encyclopaedia Britannica 2004 Deluxe Edition
“Dating,
General considerations, Correlation, Geologic column and its
associated time scale – The
end product of correlation is a mental abstraction called
the geologic column. It is the result of integrating all the
world's individual rock sequences into a single sequence.
In order to communicate the fine structure of this so-called
column, it has been
subdivided into smaller units. Lines are drawn on the basis
of either significant changes in fossil forms or discontinuities
in the rock record (i.e., unconformities, or large gaps in the sedimentary sequence);
the basic subdivisions of rock are called systems, and the
corresponding time intervals are termed periods.” –
Encyclopaedia Britannica 2004 Deluxe Edition
The
next quote further states that the gaps even in the existing
fossil record are severe enough that it is “virtually
impossible” to construct a measure of the earth’s
history using the fossil record.
“Geochronology,
Development of radioactive dating methods and their application,
Early attempts at calculating the age of the Earth –
Equally novel but similarly flawed was the assumption that,
if a cumulative measure of all rock successions were compiled
and known rates of sediment accumulation were considered,
the amount of time elapsed could be calculated. While representing
a reasonable approach to the problem, this procedure did not
or could not take into account different accumulation rates
associated with different environments or the
fact that there are many breaks in the stratigraphic record.
Even observations made on faunal succession proved that gaps
in the record do occur. How long were these gaps? Do they
represent periods of nondeposition or periods of deposition
followed by periods of erosion? Clearly sufficient variability in a given stratigraphic record exists
such that it may be virtually impossible to even come to an
approximate estimate of the Earth's age based on this technique.
Nevertheless, many attempts using this approach were made.”
– Encyclopaedia Britannica 2004 Deluxe Edition
In
addition, it’s important to make a clarification regarding
the word “sequence.” The term “sequence”
can merely denote an order, whether that order is a smooth,
developmental progression or merely the rough stacking order
of unrelated items. However, often the term “sequence”
can be perceived as indicating that the fossils themselves
are “sequential” in nature. Here “sequential”
conveys the idea of a smooth, developmental progression in
the fossil forms themselves. And although there is certainly
an order of fossils at any given site, it is simply a matter
of geologic fact that the fossils and the fossil record do
not exhibit a smooth, “sequential,” developmental
transition. Instead, as the following quotes establish, the
fossils in the in the fossil record “exhibit little
morphological” change for as long as they appear in
the record and “new species” appear suddenly with
no transitional forms.
“Evolution,
The process of evolution, Patterns and rates of species evolution,
Reconstruction of evolutionary history, Gradual and punctuational
evolution – New species, characterized by small
but discontinuous morphological changes, typically appear at the boundaries
between strata, whereas
the fossils within a stratum exhibit little morphological
variation. That is not to say that the transition from
one stratum to another always involves sudden changes in morphology;
on the contrary, fossil forms often persist virtually unchanged through several geologic
strata, each representing
millions of years.” – Encyclopaedia Britannica
2004 Deluxe Edition
“Evolution,
VIII CURRENT EVOLUTIONARY DEBATE – Because understanding of the actual evolutionary events that took place over
earth's long history depends largely on interpretations
of an incomplete fossil record, much latitude
remains for differences in such interpretations. One of the issues that is currently being
debated among theorists derives from a
notable fact observed in the fossil record. That is, when a new species appears in the record it usually does so abruptly
and then apparently remains stable for as long as the record
of that species lasts. The fossils do not seem to exhibit
the slow and gradual changes that might be expected according
to the modern synthesis. For this reason, in part, a number
of evolutionists-most notably Stephen Jay Gould of Harvard
University and Niles Eldredge of the American Museum of Natural
History-have proposed a variant concept of ‘punctuated
equilibria’ for species evolution. According to this
concept, species do
in fact tend to remain stable for long periods of time and
then to change relatively abruptly-or rather, to be replaced
suddenly by newer and more successful forms. These sudden
changes are the ‘punctuations’ in the state of
equilibrium that give this concept its name.” –
"Evolution," Microsoft® Encarta® Encyclopedia 99.
© 1993-1998 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.
“Gould,
Stephen Jay – He taught at Harvard University
from 1967. Gould (with Niles Eldredge of the American Museum
of Natural History) originated the "punctuated equilibrium"
theory of evolution, a theory based on
the fact that very few transitional forms are found in the
fossil record.” – "Gould, Stephen Jay,"
Microsoft® Encarta® Encyclopedia 99. © 1993-1998 Microsoft
Corporation. All rights reserved.
“Eldredge,
Niles – In 1972
Eldredge collaborated with Gould to publish the theory of punctuated equilibrium, which attempts to reconcile the
discontinuities between the fossil record and the Darwinian
theory of evolution. In his theory of punctuated equilibrium,
Eldredge postulates that species
remain unchanged for hundreds of thousands of years, only
to be abruptly replaced by newer and more successful forms-sporadic
changes that appear as "punctuation" in the fossil
record.” – "Eldredge, Niles,"
Microsoft® Encarta® Encyclopedia 99. © 1993-1998 Microsoft
Corporation. All rights reserved.
In
fact, the entire geologic column is divided into time periods
when there is suddenly an “explosion” of new species.
“Earth,
geologic history of, Time scales – As was explained
earlier, at specific stratigraphic boundaries certain
types of fossils either appear or disappear or both in some
cases. Such biostratigraphic boundaries separate larger or
smaller units of time that are defined as eons, eras, periods,
epochs, and ages.” – Encyclopaedia Britannica
2004 Deluxe Edition
“Geologic
Time, I INTRODUCTION – Most
boundaries in recent geologic time coincide with periodic
extinctions and appearances of new species…II DIVISION
OF TIME – An explosion of invertebrate life marks
the end of the Proterozoic and the beginning of the Phanerozoic. The Phanerozoic
Eon started 570 million years before present and continues
into the present…The
Phanerozoic Eon is divided into the Paleozoic (570 million
to 245 million years before present), Mesozoic (245 million
to 65 million years before present), and Cenozoic (65 million
years before present to present) Eras. The Paleozoic Era is divided into six periods.
From oldest to youngest they are the Cambrian (570 million
to 500 million years before present), Ordovician (500
million to 435 million years before present), Silurian (435
million to 410 million years before present), Devonian (410
million to 380 million years before present), Carboniferous
(380 million to 290 million years before present), and Permian
(290 million to 240 million years before present). The Paleozoic began with the appearance of many different life-forms,
which are preserved as abundant fossils in rock sequences
all over the world. It ended with the extinction of over 90
percent of all living organisms at the end of the Permian
Period. The cause of this event is currently unknown…The
Mesozoic began with the appearance of many new kinds of animals,
including the dinosaurs and the ammonites, or extinct relatives
of modern squid. The Mesozoic ended with another major extinction in which about 80 percent
of all living organisms died. This extinction may have
been the result of a large asteroid that crashed into the
earth on the present-day northern Yucatán Peninsula of Mexico.”
– "Geologic Time," Microsoft® Encarta® Encyclopedia
99. © 1993-1998 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.
The
fact that the fossil record is a record of distinct, fully-formed,
species that are not transitioning into one another is a huge
obstacle to the geologic column. As we have already established,
one of the central principles used to construct the geologic
column from the fossil record is faunal succession. Faunal
succession is defined by the idea that existing species evolve
or transition into new species so that the kinds of species
existing are unique in each geologic timeperiod, which in
turn allows for rock layers to be dated by the collection
of fossil species they contain.
“Stratigraphy,
II PRINCIPLES OF STRATIGRAPHY – Stratigraphy relies on four simple principles to unveil geologic history…The
principle of faunal and floral succession states that because
animals and plants evolve into new species, sedimentary
rocks of different ages will contain fossils of different
species. Knowing the age of a fossil helps to date the
rock in which it is found…These four principles of stratigraphy
can be used to unravel the geologic history of a given area.”
– "Stratigraphy," Microsoft® Encarta® Encyclopedia
99. © 1993-1998 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.
But
the rock layers as a whole contain no transitional species,
which in turn undermines the fundamental premise that existing
species transition into new species and, therefore, that the
succession of one species to another can be used to date rocks
to construct an overall geologic history. In short, the discontinuity
of the fossil record and the fact that new fossil species
appear suddenly with no transitional forms demonstrates that
faunal succession, which is necessary to produce the geologic
column, is not a real or observed phenomenon.
Consequently,
not only is the fossil record missing the first 87 percent
of earth’s history and missing huge sections in the
remaining 13 percent even on local levels, but the sequence
of fossils in the fossil record is not smooth, developmental,
or “sequential” at all. Instead, the sequence
of fossils in the fossil record is a broken, discontinuous
record of the sudden emergence of wholly new species with
no transitional forms. Effectively, the fossil record is simply
a bunch of different species preserved in different layers,
with microscopic and heavy, shelled or exoskeleton-covered
marine species at the bottom. And no matter how often this
type of order is found all around the world, it is simply
not a sequence of organisms that necessarily or even favorably
points to an evolutionary development of life.
The
third problem that prevents the fossil record from revealing
any single, overarching fossil or geologic history is the
fact that 80 to 85 percent of the earth’s land surface
does not contain more than 2 geologic periods in the “correct”
evolutionary order.
“Eighty
to eighty-five percent of Earth’s land surface does
not have even 3 geologic periods appearing in ‘correct’
consecutive order. It becomes an overall exercise of gargantuan
special pleading and imagination for the evolutionary-uniformitarian
paradigm to maintain that there ever were geologic periods.”
– Dr. John Woodmorappe, geologist “The Essential
Non-Existence of the Evolutionary Uniformitarian Geologic
Column” CRSQ Vol. 18 No. 1 June 1981, pp. 46-71 (Cited
in “Lies in the Textbooks,” Dr. Kent E. Hovind,
Creation Science Evangelism, Pensacola, FL, www.drdino.com,
Windows Media Video, 33 minutes, 45 seconds)
While
the quote above is provided by a creationist source, it can
be corroborated from the information in secular and evolutionary
sources. For instance, the same creationist source also cites
a secular textbook, which states that “If the geologic
column existed in one location it would be 100 miles thick.”
“If
the geologic column existed in one location it would be 100
miles thick!” Biology,
p. 385, A Boka Books (Cited in “Lies in the Textbooks,”
Dr. Kent E. Hovind, Creation Science Evangelism, Pensacola,
FL, www.drdino.com, Windows Media Video, 20 minutes)
Britannica
makes a similar comment to the one from this secular textbook.
Britannica asserts that, if compiled, just the fossil-bearing
portion of the geologic column would be only 122,000 meters
thick, which is about 76 miles.
“Geochronology,
Nonradiometric dating, Geologic processes as absolute chronometers,
Accumulational processes – The fossiliferous part of
the geologic column includes perhaps 122,000 metres of sedimentary
rock if maximum thicknesses are selected from throughout
the world.” – Encyclopaedia Britannica 2004 Deluxe
Edition
The
fact that the fossil-bearing geologic column would be 76 miles
thick if it existed as a real, physical entity corroborates
the fact that no more than 2 periods of the geologic column
can be found in 80 to 85 percent of the world. First, it is
important to note that the earth’s crust, particularly
the earth’s continental crust where fossil sites are
found, is on average only about 10 miles thick.
“How
thick is the earth’s crust?, A Continental Crust
– The earth's solid surface is about 40 percent continental
crust. Continental crust is much older, thicker and less dense
than oceanic crust. Generally, the continental crust between plates that are moving apart
is very thin, about 20 km (about 10 mi) thick. In other places,
such as mountain ranges, the crust ranges from 30 to 70 km
(from 20 to 40 mi) thick.” – "Plate Tectonics,"
Microsoft® Encarta® Encyclopedia 99. © 1993-1998 Microsoft
Corporation. All rights reserved.
This
means that the 76-mile-high fossil-bearing portion of the
geologic column is somewhere between 7 to 8 times thicker
than the continental crust itself. But an even more striking
realization occurs when we consider the thickness of sedimentary
rock in the earth’s crust. As mentioned previously,
fossils are only found in sedimentary rock.
“Dating,
General considerations, Distinctions between relative-age
and absolute-age measurements – Unlike ages derived
from fossils, which occur only in sedimentary rocks, absolute
ages are obtained from minerals that grow as liquid rock bodies
cool at or below the surface.” – Encyclopaedia
Britannica 2004 Deluxe Edition
“Sedimentary,
rock – Most
fossils are found in sedimentary rock. The fossils formed
when sediments covered dead plants and animals. As the sediments
changed to rock, either the remains or the outlines of the
plants and animals were preserved. Some limestone is made
entirely of fossil shells.” – Worldbook, Contributor:
Maria Luisa Crawford, Ph.D., Professor of Geology, Bryn Mawr
College.
Since
fossils are only found in sedimentary rock, the fossil-bearing
geologic column has to come from sedimentary rock. And even
though the continental crust itself is usually around 10 miles
thick, sedimentary rock only occurs as a “thin veneer”
covering the top portion at the top of the vast majority of
earth’s crust, as indicated by the quotes below.
“Sedimentary,
rock – Sedimentary
rock covers about three-fourths of Earth's land area and most
of the ocean floor.” – Worldbook, Contributor:
Maria Luisa Crawford, Ph.D., Professor of Geology, Bryn
Mawr College.
“Igneous
rock – The Earth is composed predominantly of a
large mass of igneous rock with a
very thin veneer of weathered material—namely, sedimentary
rock.” – Encyclopaedia Britannica 2004 Deluxe
Edition
"Dating,
General considerations, Determination of sequence –
Most methods for determining relative geologic ages are well
illustrated in sedimentary rocks. These rocks cover roughly
75 percent of the surface area of the continents, and unconsolidated
sediments blanket most of the ocean floor." –
Encyclopaedia Britannica 2004 Deluxe Edition
“Sedimentary
rock – rock formed at or near the Earth's surface
by the accumulation and lithification of sediment (detrital
rock) or by the precipitation from solution at normal surface
temperatures (chemical rock). Sedimentary rocks are the most common rocks
exposed on the Earth's surface but are only a minor constituent
of the entire crust, which is dominated by igneous and
metamorphic rocks…Sediments and sedimentary rocks are confined
to the Earth's crust, which is the thin, light outer solid
skin of the Earth ranging in thickness from 40–100 kilometres
(25 to 62 miles) in the continental blocks to 4–10 kilometres
in the ocean basins. Igneous and metamorphic rocks constitute
the bulk of the crust. The total volume of sediment and
sedimentary rocks can be either directly measured using exposed
rock sequences, drill-hole data, and seismic profiles or indirectly
estimated by comparing the chemistry of major sedimentary
rock types to the overall chemistry of the crust from which
they are weathered. Both methods indicate that the Earth's sediment-sedimentary
rock shell forms only about 5 percent by volume of the terrestrial
crust, which in
turn accounts for less than 1 percent of the Earth's total
volume. On the other hand, the area of outcrop and exposure
of sediment and sedimentary rock comprises 75 percent of the
land surface and well over 90 percent of the ocean basins
and continental margins. In other words, 80–90 percent
of the surface area of the Earth is mantled with sediment
or sedimentary rocks rather than with igneous or metamorphic
varieties. The sediment-sedimentary rock shell forms only a thin superficial layer.
The mean shell thickness in continental areas is 1.8 kilometres;
the sediment shell in the ocean basins is roughly 0.3 kilometre.
Rearranging this shell as a globally encircling layer (and
depending on the raw estimates incorporated into the model),
the shell thickness
would be roughly 1–3 kilometres. Despite the relatively
insignificant volume of the sedimentary rock shell, not only
are most rocks exposed at the terrestrial surface of the sedimentary
variety, but many of the significant events in Earth history
are most accurately dated and documented by analyzing and
interpreting the sedimentary rock record instead of the more
voluminous igneous and metamorphic rock record.” –
Encyclopaedia Britannica 2004 Deluxe Edition
Most
significantly, notice that on the continental crust, sedimentary
rock forms a “superficial” shell that is only
1.8 kilometers thick, which is only about 1.1 miles. This
brings up an important question. Since the entire fossil-bearing
geologic column would be 76 miles thick and sedimentary rock
is only 1.1 miles thick, exactly how much of the fossil-bearing
geologic record, how many layers, could possibly be visible
at any particular site?
Britannica
Encyclopedia provides a chart outlining the different eons,
eras, periods, epochs, and ages of the geologic column. (See
Britannica Geologic Column Figure
1.) The chart identifies 80 different ages, which is the
smallest division of time on the chart. And, if we only count
from the Cambrian Period forward, when fossils become abundant
enough to use for integrating a single rock sequence, the
chart identifies only 11 periods. With 80 ages in a 76-mile-high
geologic column, each age would be just under 1 mile thick.
And with 11 periods in a 76-mile-high geologic column, each
period would be almost 7 miles thick. So, again, with sedimentary
rock only being an average of 1.1 miles thick how many periods
of fossils could be present at any one particular site? With
not only periods but even the smaller unit of ages being so
thick, it is easy to see why 80 to 85 percent of the earth’s
surface does not contain even 3 periods of geologic time,
particulary in the “correct” evolutionary order,
just as we saw earlier in the following quote.
“Eighty
to eighty-five percent of Earth’s land surface does
not have even 3 geologic periods appearing in ‘correct’
consecutive order. It becomes an overall exercise of gargantuan
special pleading and imagination for the evolutionary-uniformitarian
paradigm to maintain that there ever were geologic periods.”
– Dr. John Woodmorappe, geologist “The Essential
Non-Existence of the Evolutionary Uniformitarian Geologic
Column” CRSQ Vol. 18 No. 1 June 1981, pp. 46-71 (Cited
in “Lies in the Textbooks,” Dr. Kent E. Hovind,
Creation Science Evangelism, Pensacola, FL, www.drdino.com,
Windows Media Video, 33 minutes, 45 seconds)
Consequently,
we can see that the fossil record is missing the first 87
percent of earth’s history, is missing huge sections
in the remaining 13 percent even on local levels, is comprised
of an order that is not a smooth, developmental “sequential”
at all, and each individual fossil site around the world contains
less than 3 geologic periods and a slice that is only about
one-eightieth of the thickness of the whole geologic column.
These mounting problems provide further and further demonstrations
that the actual, physical fossil evidence simply does not
provide any single, uniform sequence of fossil or geologic
history.
But,
before we turn to the next problem that prevents the fossil
record from revealing any single, overarching fossil or geologic
history, there are a few more items worth noting about the
76-mile-high fossil-bearing portion of the geologic column.
First, to emphasize the dramatic height of a 76-mile geologic
column, we should consider the fact that the ozone layer is
only 30 miles above the surface of the earth and that satellites
start orbiting at 100 miles up.
“Earth
[planet], The atmosphere – Air surrounds Earth and
becomes progressively thinner farther from the surface. Most people find it difficult to breathe more than 2 miles (3 kilometers)
above sea level. About 100 miles (160 kilometers) above the
surface, the air is so thin that satellites can travel without
much resistance…High above the troposphere, about 30 miles (48 kilometers) above Earth's surface, is a layer of still
air called the stratosphere. The stratosphere contains
a layer where ultraviolet light from the sun strikes oxygen
molecules to create a gas called ozone.” – Contributor:
Steven I. Dutch, Ph.D., Professor, Department of Natural and
Applied Sciences, University
of Wisconsin, Green
Bay.
Second,
as we noted above, the earth is covered with only about 1
mile’s worth of sedimentary rock when a height of 76
miles is required for just the fossil-bearing portion of the
geologic column. Moreover, although a height of 76 miles is
required, the surface of the earth is covered, at a maximum,
by only 1-mile-thick slivers of fossils. With these contrasts
in view, it seems vastly more plausible that the 1 mile of
sediment and wholly-formed, non-transitioning, discontinuous
fossil sites all around the world are the result of a massive,
global flood that buried and preserved the simple, surface-living
and marine life forms with hard parts such as exoskeletons
at the bottom while more complex life forms survived longer
and were buried later on in higher layers. The alternative
is that a quantity of sedimentary rock that represents 76
miles times the area of the earth’s spherical surface
has worn away and then resettled into only 1.1 miles of surviving
sedimentary rock which despite this unimaginably massive amount
of erosion still somehow managed to preserve intact selected
samples from each past age in a discernable evolutionary order
while also somehow managing to leave out all of the transitional
forms where evolution occurs. In this light, the precarious
string of improbabilities inherent to the evolutionary view
becomes apparent. Isn’t a single layer of 1.1 mile thick
sedimentary rock burying and preserving different varieties
of organisms in different layers as a result of a global flood
much more reasonable and plausible, particularly in light
of the historical and geologic evidence for a global flood?
(For
an illustration of the height of the geologic column please
see Dating Proceedures Figure
3 and Dating Proceedures
Figure 5.)
The
fourth problem that prevents the fossil record from revealing
any single, overarching fossil or geologic history is the
fact that most fossil species are not found all over the world.
Fossils in general are found all around the world, as the
following quote states.
“Fossil,
III WHERE FOSSILS FORM – Fossils are found in all parts
of the world, from Greenland to Antarctica.
They can be found in cores drilled in and retrieved from the ocean floor, and on top of the highest mountains. Their wide geographical distribution
is a result of the way the earth's surface has changed throughout
its history.” – "Fossil," Microsoft®
Encarta® Encyclopedia 99. © 1993-1998 Microsoft Corporation.
All rights reserved.
However,
specific fossil types are not widely distributed geographically,
as both of the following 2 quotes indicate. In particular,
the first quote states that only floating or swimming marine
creatures have wide geographic distribution. The second quote
similarly asserts that the widely distributed fossils are
limited to unicellular marine or land organisms, such as spores
or foraminiferan, that “could move with the currents”
of water or wind. (It is also worth pointing out the second
quote’s assertion that graptolites, another marine organism,
are fossilized “on continents” is an interesting
piece of evidence that further corroborates that the world
was once covered by a massive flood, creating marine fossils
far inland. But that is not the current focus.)
“Index
Fossil, III CHARACTERISTICS OF INDEX FOSSILS – Index fossils that are widely distributed allow geologists to correlate
the rocks at one location with those far away. The best
index fossils for this purpose have a wide geographical distribution,
have a speedy dispersal, and occur independent of rock type.
Organisms with the widest geographic distribution are generally marine
creatures that are pelagic (floating) or nectonic (swimming)
for at least part of their life cycles. These organisms
easily can be distributed across entire ocean basins and
some achieve near worldwide distribution. Dispersal refers to the spreading of a group of organisms from one area
to another.” – "Index Fossil," Microsoft®
Encarta® Encyclopedia 99. © 1993-1998 Microsoft Corporation.
All rights reserved.
“Fossil,
III WHERE FOSSILS FORM – Some fossils are restricted
to small areas and some are distributed globally. The most
widespread fossils are the remains of organisms that lived
in oceans and could move with the currents, such as foraminifera, and those that lived on land and were spread
by wind, such as spores.
Fossils of graptolites (marine invertebrates
that lived in colonies) in
rocks of marine origin and of ferns on land are now found
on all continents. Certain species of shallow-water trilobites,
and dinosaurs that were restricted to land, are found only
at particular localities.” – "Fossil,"
Microsoft® Encarta® Encyclopedia 99. © 1993-1998 Microsoft
Corporation. All rights reserved.
The
second quote above goes on to contrast the widely-distributed
fossils of marine organisms to land animals such as dinosaurs,
which are not widely distributed geographically but “are
found only at particular localities.” Consequently,
the fact that most types of organisms are not floating or
swimming marine organisms and, therefore, are found “only
at particular localities” demonstrates the difficulty
of “correlating the rocks at one location with those
far away.” In fact, as the first quote indicates this
limited distribution of different fossil types requires special
fossils called “index fossils” to be used in order
to correlate the distinct collections of fossil types found
at different locations. Index fossils themselves provide further
indications of how individual fossil species are not widely
distributed geographically. So, we will return to the issue
of index fossils momentarily. But for now, we’ll return
instead to the point at hand.
As
stated by the last quote above, land animals, such as dinosaurs
are not widely distributed geographically but “are found
only at particular localities.” The quote below states
that “similar kinds of fossil dinosaurs” are found
“on all of the modern continents.” However, in
light of the quote above, we can firmly conclude that similar
dinosaur fossils are only found at a limited number of sites
on each continent. But more importantly, in contrast to fossil
dinosaurs, which the previous quote already established as
occurring “at particular localities,” the quote
below plainly states that mammal fossils have an even more
limited distribution than dinosaurs.
“Fossil,
How fossils reveal the past, Recording changes in the earth
– Fossils also provide evidence supporting the theory
of continental drift-the idea that the positions of the continents
have changed over hundreds of millions of years. Paleontologists
have found similar kinds of fossil dinosaurs on all of the
modern continents. It is unlikely that similar species
could have evolved on separate continents. As a result, most
earth scientists believe that when the dinosaurs first appeared-about
230 million years ago-nearly all the earth's land mass was
united as a single supercontinent. In
contrast, fossils of mammals show complex differences from
continent to continent. This indicates that after about
200 million years ago, when mammals were beginning to develop
and spread, the supercontinent was breaking apart.”
– Worldbook, Contributor: Steven M. Stanley, Ph.D.,
Professor of Earth and Planetary Sciences, Johns Hopkins
University.
While
fossils of similar dinosaurs are found in only a few locations
on each continent, mammal fossils are different from continent
to continent.
In
addition, the next quote provides even further evidence that
different sites contain different fossils rather than “fossils
always appearing in the same order” even “across
broad geographic areas.” As the quote states, old fossils
from a long time ago are found on certain continents while
young fossils from more recently are found on other continents.
“Fossil,
III WHERE FOSSILS FORM – Different
types of fossils are found in different geological formations,
depending on the prehistoric environment
represented and the age of the rock. Older rocks are found
on low, eroded continents near the edges of large oceans.
Younger rocks are found more commonly where there is active
mountain building and volcanic activity. Old fossils are most commonly found where
an old mountain range has eroded, such as in eastern North America and northern Europe, or where two old continents
have collided, such as in Russia. Younger fossils are found at the ocean side of young mountains where
an ocean plate is colliding with a continental plate, such
as in western North and South America and in
New Zealand.”
– "Fossil," Microsoft® Encarta® Encyclopedia
99. © 1993-1998 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.
In
fact, scientists know that, in general, different types of
fossils are found in vastly different areas. That is why scientists
look for certain types of fossils only in certain regions,
as stated in the quote below.
“Fossil,
Studying fossils – Paleontologists
search in specific areas for particular types of fossils.
In North America, for example, most fossil mammals are found
west of the Mississippi River.
Paleontologists hunt for fossil ancestors of human beings
in eastern and southern Africa.
Canada and Australia have deposits of well-preserved
ancient marine invertebrates.” – Worldbook,
Contributor: Steven M. Stanley, Ph.D., Professor of Earth
and Planetary Sciences, Johns
Hopkins University.
For
the next proof that fossil sites contain different combinations
of fossils rather than the same fossils in the same order
at every location, we return to the geologic column provided
by Microsoft Encarta.
“[PHOTO
CAPTION] © Microsoft Corporation. All Rights Reserved.”
– "Geologic Time Scale," Microsoft® Encarta®
Encyclopedia 99. © 1993-1998 Microsoft Corporation. All rights
reserved.
From
the chart we notice that the terms “Cenozoic,”
“Mesozoic” and “Paleozoic” designate
different eras, which are the second largest division of evolutionary
geologic time. We also need to recall from earlier that fossils
are only found in sedimentary rock, that sedimentary rock
is only 1.1 miles thick on continental crust, and that the
entire fossil-bearing portion of the geologic column is 76
miles thick. The following quote asserts that “distinctive
combinations of fossils” are found in “rocks of
certain ages.” The quote then provides 3 examples in
which the ages it has in view are Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and
Cenozoic. Moreover, the examples demonstrate that rocks of
these ages have “distinct combinations of fossils.”
Paleozoic rocks contain “trilobites and graptolites.”
Mesozoic rocks contain “dinosaurs” and “ammonites,”
which are an extinct form of squid. And Cenozoic
rocks contain “flowering plants” and “mammals.”
“Geologic
Time, III DATING METHODS – The third principle,
that of fossil succession, deals with fossils in sedimentary
rock. Careful mapping around the world has revealed that rock of certain ages
contains distinctive combinations of fossils-Paleozoic rocks contain trilobite and graptolite fossils, Mesozoic rocks contain dinosaur remains
and ammonite fossils, Cenozoic
rocks contain remnants of flowering plants and abundant
mammal remains. By matching the fossil content of rock sequences,
even across widespread geographic regions, paleontologists believe
that certain sequences are probably about the same age.”
– "Geologic Time," Microsoft® Encarta® Encyclopedia
99. © 1993-1998 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.
Here
we must keep in mind that Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic
are the second largest divisions of evolutionary time. Each
one of these eras contains roughly a third of the 600-million-year-long
fossil-bearing portion geologic column, which is 76 miles
thick. In contrast, individual fossil sites can only contain
1.1 miles’ worth of fossils. Consequently, since no
individual site could contain even one of these eras, when
Encarta denotes that rocks of certain eras “contain
distinctive combinations of fossils,” it is really denoting
that rock layers at different locations “contain distinctive
combinations of fossils.” Once again, here we see that
the same fossils are not found in the same order everywhere,
but in reality, each site contains a different combination
of fossils. And this is corroborated even in the quote above
which begins by noting that the collection of fossils at each
site is so diverse that “careful mapping” of which
fossils are at which sites must be performed for the entire
world. Clearly, different fossils are found at different sites,
not the same fossils in the same order over and over again.
As
mentioned previously, index fossils provide additional proof
that different fossil sites contain different fossils rather
than the same fossils in the same order. Since most fossils
are not found around the world, those fossils that are dispersed
more widely geographically play a key role. Such widely distributed
fossils are called “index fossils.” All of the
quotes below assert that wide geographic distribution is one
of the traits that makes an index fossil and index fossil.
“Index
fossil – any animal or plant preserved in the rock
record of the Earth that is characteristic of a particular
span of geologic time or environment. A useful index fossil must be distinctive
or easily recognizable, abundant, and have a widegeographic
distribution and a short range through time. Index fossils
are the basis for defining boundaries in the geologic time
scale and for the correlation of strata.” –
Encyclopaedia Britannica 2004 Deluxe Edition
“Fossil,
VI DATING AND CLASSIFYING FOSSILS – Some organisms lived for only a short period of geological time, and
paleontologists use the fossils of these
organisms as indicators to establish the age of fossils found
in association with them. If similar fossils have been found
over a wide geographic range, the fossils may be used to correlate
the dates of formations in different localities.”
– "Fossil," Microsoft® Encarta® Encyclopedia
99. © 1993-1998 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.
“Dating,
General considerations, Correlation, Principles and techniques
– The basic conceptual tool for correlation
by fossils is the index, or guide, fossil…On the practical
side, an index fossil should be distinctive in appearance
so as to prevent misidentification, and it should be cosmopolitan both as to geography and as to rock type. In addition,
its fossilized population
should be sufficiently abundant for discovery to be highly
probable. Such an array of attributes represents an ideal,
and much stratigraphic geology is rendered difficult because
of departure of the natural fossil assemblage from this ideal.”
– Encyclopaedia Britannica 2004 Deluxe Edition
“Index
Fossil, I INTRODUCTION – Index fossils are also used
to compare, or correlate, rocks exposed in separate locations…II
INFORMATION GATHERED FROM INDEX FOSSILS – Index fossils
are also used to show the relationship between rocks layers
in distant locations. For example, layers of limestone
exposed in different areas may appear identical. To determine whether they are part of the
same rock layer or represent distinct and unrelated rock layers,
geologists study the fossils in the limestone. Generally,
each rock layer contains distinctive groups of fossils, called
the index fossils for that layer. If both limestones contain
the same index fossils, they are likely part of the same rock
layer and thus from the same time period…III CHARACTERISTICS
OF INDEX FOSSILS – The
ideal index fossils are those that are abundant, easy
to identify, short-lived, widely
distributed, and occur in many types of rocks…Index
fossils that are widely distributed allow geologists to correlate
the rocks at one location with those far away. The best index fossils for this purpose
have a wide geographical distribution, have a speedy dispersal,
and occur independent of rock type…Most
fossil groups only possess a few of these ideal attributes.
Groups that were widespread and abundant
generally were very successful and usually existed for long
periods of geologic time.” – "Index Fossil,"
Microsoft® Encarta® Encyclopedia 99. © 1993-1998 Microsoft
Corporation. All rights reserved.
The
very need to identify special fossils that are widely distributed
enough to aid in integrating a single geologic sequence demonstrates
conversely the extent to which most fossils “are found
only at particular localities.” On a related note, as
indicated midway through the last quote above, it is assumed
that an index fossil in one location has the same age as that
same fossil found at another location. Thus, since index fossils
have the same age, they can be used to correlate the ages
of rock layers at different locations.
However,
this is merely an assumption. There’s no way to know
if the species was short-lived and therefore all fossil forms
of it represent the same short timespan or if the species
was long-lived and fossil forms of it come from vastly different
times. But more importantly, even if we make the assumption
that like fossils are of like age, that assumption alone does
not in anyway prove that all the fossils in the layers above
and below it have vastly different ages. The conclusion that
other fossils have different ages than the index fossils requires
the additional assumption that the distance between one fossil
layer and the next equates to millions of years, an assumption
that is completely unaffected one way or the other by using
index fossils and the assumption that “like fossils
are of like age.” In the creationist model, all fossils
have roughly the same age since the majority of fossils are
viewed as the result of a flood. Consequently, even if index
fossils or other like fossils are assumed to have the same
age, that alone would not in any way lead to the conclusion
that rock layers and fossils formed over hundreds of millions
of years. To the contrary, the idea that like fossils are
of like age fits perfectly well into the theory that all fossils
are roughly the same age. So, while index fossils are a necessary
tool for correlating the geologic column, even with certain
assumptions about index fossils, there is no way to form the
geologic column unless one first assumes evolution’s
long ages of time and the evolution of species itself.
The
fifth problem that prevents the fossil record from revealing
any single, overarching fossil or geologic history is the
fact that sometimes fossils are found entirely in the wrong
order. When this happens and the fossils are in the opposite
order that evolution expects or predicts, the entire rock
formation is deemed to be upside down so that the fossils
can still be in the “correct” evolutionary order.
“Dating,
General considerations, Determination of sequence – On occasion, however,
deformation may have caused the rocks of the crust to tilt,
perhaps to the point of overturning
them. Moreover, if erosion has blurred the record by removing
substantial portions of the deformed sedimentary rock, it may not be at all clear which edge of a given layer is the original
top and which is the original bottom. Identifying top and bottom is clearly important in sequence determination,
so important in fact that a considerable literature has been
devoted to this question alone. Many of the criteria of top–bottom
determination are based on asymmetry in depositional features.
Oscillation ripple marks, for example, are produced in sediments
by water sloshing back and forth. When such marks are preserved
in sedimentary rocks, they define the original top and bottom
by their asymmetric pattern. Certain fossils also accumulate in a distinctive
pattern or position that serves to define the top side.”
– Encyclopaedia Britannica 2004 Deluxe Edition
As
we noted earlier, critics of the geologic column point out
that 80-85 percent of the earth’s land surface does
not have even 3 geologic periods in “correct”
geologic order.
“Eighty
to eighty-five percent of Earth’s land surface does
not have even 3 geologic periods appearing in ‘correct’
consecutive order.” – Dr. John Woodmorappe,
geologist “The Essential Non-Existence of the Evolutionary
Uniformitarian Geologic Column” CRSQ Vol. 18 No. 1 June
1981, pp. 46-71 (Cited in “Lies in the Textbooks,”
Dr. Kent E. Hovind, Creation Science Evangelism, Pensacola,
FL, www.drdino.com, Windows Media Video, 33 minutes, 45 seconds)
Because
fossils are sometimes found out of the expected evolutionary
order, requiring that the rock layers be viewed as “upside
down” or “tilted,” Encarta gives the following
qualification that lower layers are older “in most cases”
but not always.
“[PHOTO
CAPTION] Stratigraphy – Archaeologists
determine the age of artifacts and other remains in relation
to each other and
to the present through a technique called stratigraphy. This
illustration depicts a cross-section into the ground in which
many layers of soil, rock, and other materials can be seen.
In most cases, objects buried in lower layers,
such as the stonework, are
older than those in higher layers, such as the skull.
© Microsoft Corporation. All Rights Reserved.” –
"Stratigraphy," Microsoft® Encarta® Encyclopedia
99. © 1993-1998 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.
However,
if we don’t assume that an entire series of rock layers
were flipped upside down, the fact that some fossils are found
out of evolutionary order would indicate that these organisms
did not evolve and live at different periods of time separated
by long intervals. Moreover, the fact that fossils are found
in orders that contradict evolution demonstrates once again
that the same fossils are not found in the same order all
around the world. Furthermore, the admission that fossil sequences
can be and sometimes are flipped over and in the reverse order
adds a considerable difficulty for constructing a single,
worldwide geologic column. The problem is that unless we assume
the evolutionary order of species we cannot determine which
fossil sites are turned over and which are normal. How do
we know if the sites evolutionists think are “normal”
have actually become “flipped” or vice versa?
How do we know if some sites where fossils are in the evolutionary
order have not also been flipped over as a result of whatever
geological processes can cause such a phenomenon? Put simply,
the criterion that is being used to designate some sites as
“flipped over” and other sites as “normal”
is whether or not the fossils appear in an order consistent
with evolution.
The
sixth problem that prevents the fossil record from revealing
any single, overarching fossil or geologic history is the
fact that fossils of the same species are found at different
layers within rock formations, layers that are thought to
represent “widely different times,” which are
“millions of years” apart.
“Index
Fossil, III CHARACTERISTICS OF INDEX FOSSILS – The
ideal index fossils are those that are abundant, easy to identify,
short-lived, widely distributed, and occur in many types of
rocks…Most fossil groups only possess a few of these ideal attributes…Those that were more local or regional tended
to migrate over time and their presence in different areas
may have occurred at widely different times. One occurrence
may be from just after the group evolved and the other from
millions of years later, just before the group became extinct.”
– "Index Fossil," Microsoft® Encarta® Encyclopedia
99. © 1993-1998 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.
As
we have seen, the standard rule is that “like fossils
are of like age.”
“Geology,
III THE GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE, C Correlation – Fossils are the most useful tools for correlation. Since the work
of Smith and Cuvier, biostratigraphers
have noted that ‘like fossils are of like age.’
This is the principle of fossil correlation.” –
"Geology," Microsoft® Encarta® Encyclopedia 99.
© 1993-1998 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.
Either
this is a sound principle or it isn’t. Either we are
safe to assume that like fossils are the same age or we are
not. Consequently, if this standard rule is sound then when
similar fossils are found in rock layers at different stratigraphic
levels, the “like fossils” should indicate that
those rock layers are the same age. However, when similar
looking fossils are found in rock layers that are thought
to be separated by millions of years, evolutionists discard
or ignore their fundamental principle that “like fossils
are of like age” and instead assume that the “lower”
fossil is an earlier evolutionary form of the slightly different
“higher-layer” fossil. The quote below uses separate
species of “conodonts” as an example.
“Index
Fossil, III CHARACTERISTICS OF INDEX FOSSILS – In
general, for an index fossil to be most useful, it
must be identified to the species level. For example, conodonts
as a group occur in rocks from the Cambrian Period to the
Triassic Period (570 million to 208 million years ago), but
the conodont species Siphonodella sulcata is present only
at the beginning of the Carboniferous Period (360 million
to 355 million years ago) and is an index fossil for this
narrow time period.” – "Index Fossil,"
Microsoft® Encarta® Encyclopedia 99. © 1993-1998 Microsoft
Corporation. All rights reserved.
The
problem is that while the principle that “like fossils
are of like age” is an essential tool for constructing
the geologic column, there is simply no objective basis for
suggesting that similar fossils are two different species.
The next quote provides an example in which paleontologists
try to distinguish between different species of saber-toothed
cats. As the quote indicates, the basis for classifying one
fossil as a different species than another is the shape and
size of the “hard parts, such as shells, teeth, and
skeletons, because these are the features that are preserved.”
“Fossil,
Studying fossils, Classifying fossils – Like living
plants and animals, fossil
species are classified according to how closely related they
are to one another. In general, scientists determine how closely
related various species are by comparing their many biological
features (see CLASSIFICATION, SCIENTIFIC). For fossil groups, these features are primarily
the shapes of hard parts, such as shells, teeth, and skeletons,
because these are the features that are preserved. For example,
paleontologists may look at skull
shape and tooth size when determining the different species
of saber-toothed cat.” – Contributor: Steven
M. Stanley, Ph.D., Professor of Earth and Planetary Sciences,
Johns
Hopkins University.
But
variations in size or shape of teeth and skeletons or even
shells are not valid criteria for classifying fossils into
separate species. First, even in the modern human population,
there is a great deal of variety in skull shape and skeletal
size, including teeth. Yet all of these variations exist within
the same species. They are just variations in one species
based upon the particular genetic sample in each individual.
Consequently, such size or shape varieties are simply not
sufficient objective evidence for classifying two fossils
as different species or for violating the evolutionary “like
fossils are of like age” principle.
Second,
as we discussed in a previous segment, the inability to interbreed
is the line of demarcation for distinguishing separate species.
This is noted in both of the quotes below. However, as both
of the quotes below also indicate, “fossils cannot provide
evidence of the development of reproductive isolation.”
“Evolution,
The process of evolution, Patterns and rates of species evolution,
Reconstruction of evolutionary history, Gradual and punctuational
evolution – Species are groups of interbreeding natural
populations that are reproductively isolated from any other
such groups. Speciation involves, therefore, the development
of reproductive isolation between populations previously able
to interbreed. Paleontologists recognize species by their
different morphologies as preserved in the fossil record,
but fossils cannot provide evidence of the development
of reproductive isolation because new species that are reproductively
isolated from their ancestors are often morphologically indistinguishable
from them.” – Encyclopaedia Britannica 2004
Deluxe Edition
“Evolution,
The process of evolution, Species and speciation, The concept
of species – It
is, then, clear that although species are usually identified
by appearance, there is something basic, of great biological
significance, behind similarity of appearance; individuals of a species are able to interbreed
with one another but not with members of other species…Although the criterion for deciding whether
individuals belong to the same species is clear, there may
be ambiguity in practice for two reasons. One is lack
of knowledge; it may not be known for certain whether
individuals living in different sites belong to the same species,
because it is not known whether they can naturally interbreed.”
– Encyclopaedia Britannica 2004 Deluxe Edition
As
indicated by the first quote above, the problem is even non-interbreeding
groups often look too similar to one another morphologically.
Simply put, because even non-interbreeding groups often look
similar, we cannot tell merely from their preserved hard parts
whether or not two fossils could or could not interbreed.
This problem becomes even more insurmountable when we realize
that “the small changes that would make up gradual evolutionary
development” are not “of a nature that would be
apparent in the fossil history of a species” because
fossils “primarily show gross morphological changes.”
“Evolution,
VIII CURRENT EVOLUTIONARY DEBATE – Fossils primarily show gross morphological changes, whereas changes
taking place in genetic makeup could be extensive even though
overall body structures do not reveal these shifts in populations
of species.” – "Evolution," Microsoft®
Encarta® Encyclopedia 99. © 1993-1998 Microsoft Corporation.
All rights reserved.
“Evolution,
VIII CURRENT EVOLUTIONARY DEBATE – In addition,
the small changes that would make up gradual
evolutionary development according
to the modern synthesis are themselves not necessarily of
a nature that would be apparent in the fossil history of a
species, however complete it might be over a given stretch
of time.” – "Evolution," Microsoft®
Encarta® Encyclopedia 99. © 1993-1998 Microsoft Corporation.
All rights reserved.
As
such, the fossil record simply does not provide the kind of
information that would be required to identify two similar
fossils as different species. Therefore, with no evidentiary
basis for qualifying two like-fossils as different species,
there is simply no valid, objective reason for evolutionists
to discard their fundamental relative dating principle that
“like fossils are of like age.” Consequently,
layers that are thought to represent “widely different
times,” which are “millions of years” apart
should really be considered the same age if they contain similar
fossils. Thus, evolution’s own fundamental principle
for constructing the geologic column demands that widely separated
layers containing similar fossils should be consolidated into
a single contemporary time. This would result in the loss
of the millions of years represented by each of the involved
layers and all the layers in between them. Furthermore, any
“evolution” of other species that is occurring
in those layers would now be negated as all the species in
those layers are interpreted as contemporaries in light of
the presence of like fossils in a layer below them and a layer
above them. But most importantly, the presence of like fossils
in rock layers of different levels demonstrates that the fossil
record around the world simply does not present an evolutionary
sequence.
Alternatively,
if evolutionists do not want to forfeit the ages created by
assigning different ages to rock layers that have like fossils,
they must forfeit the principle that “like fossils are
of like age.” If
this principle is forfeited then like fossils from rock layers
at different locations around the world cannot be assigned
the same age and used as index fossils to correlate the ages
of fossils from different sites into a single, geologic chronology
or evolutionary order. Either way, the geologic column is
impossible to construct.
In
light of these six facts demonstrating that the fossil record
does not reveal any single, overarching evolutionary sequence
of fossils, what are we to make of the oversimplified statements
in the quotes below that “in different geographic locations,
the same, or similar, fossils” are found “in identical
order” or that “the sequence of fossils always
appear in the same order” even “across broad geographic
areas”?
“Fossil
– It is often apparent that each
layer in such a sequence contains fossils that are distinct
from those of the layers that are above and below it. In such
sequences of layers in different geographic locations, the
same, or similar, fossil floras or faunas occur in the identical
order. By comparing overlapping sequences, it is possible
to build up a continuous record of faunas and floras that
have progressively more in common with present-day life forms
as the top of the sequence is approached.” – Encyclopaedia
Britannica 2004 Deluxe Edition
“Index
Fossil, IV USE OF INDEX FOSSILS – British geologist
William Smith was the first person known to employ the concept
of index fossils. He noted that rock layers could not be reliably
identified from rock type alone. By using both rock type and the unique group
of fossils present in each layer, he was successful in recognizing
individual rock layers across broad geographic areas. Smith
also noted that the sequence of fossils always appeared in
the same order.” – "Index Fossil,"
Microsoft® Encarta® Encyclopedia 99. © 1993-1998 Microsoft
Corporation. All rights reserved.
In
light of the above facts, we find that the same fossils are
not found in the same order all around the world. Instead
of fossils everywhere revealing a single sequence of geology
and evolution, we have found that the fossil record begins
with the first 87 percent of earth’s history missing,
the remaining 13 percent is riddled with significant missing
portions and no transitional forms but only static morphologies,
“eighty to eighty-five percent of Earth’s land
surface does not have even 3 geologic periods” particularly
in the correct evolutionary order, individual fossil types
are generally not found all over the world but “only
at particular localities” requiring the use of particular
“index fossils” to create correlations between
different sites, sometimes fossils are found in the opposite
order of evolution, and rock layers designated as millions
of years apart are really contemporary because they contain
“like fossils” and “like fossils indicate
like age.”
Consequently,
the only possible valid meaning for the oversimplified statements
that “fossils are found in the same order all around
the world” is that simpler organisms are generally at
the bottom and more complex organisms are usually higher up
in the fossil record all around the world. Yet as we established
early on in this segment, that order alone does not particularly
weigh in favor of either evolution or creation theory since
creation theory also explains why the general order of primitive
to complex exists. Moreover, as also previously stated, both
evolution theory and creation theory really have the same
explanation for this order. Both theories assert that the
order of fossils is really an order of burial, which organisms
were buried first. In evolutionary theory, this burial happens
very slowly over millions of years and the slow process of
evolution is what causes only some organisms to be present
in the lower layers. In creation theory, this burial happens
very quickly (in perhaps a matter of months) and the global
flood is mechanism responsible for sorting the organisms.
The evidence is agreed upon and accommodated by both theories
and each theory explains the evidence in terms of its own
mechanisms. Consequently, the question is which mechanism
is better attested to, the mechanisms of new species evolving
over time or the mechanism of a global flood. The information
provided in previous segments shows that the mechanism of
evolution has no evidence and simply does not work, whereas
the flood is greatly evidenced in both the history and geologic
record.
Finally,
the difficulty created by the problems outlined above is demonstrated
by the fact that after 200 years of evolution and adjustment,
the geologic column continues to evolve and be adjusted to
this very day. Moreover, the fact that the geologic column
continues to be adjusted further demonstrates that it is not
an objective structure existing in reality but a mental image
that can be altered as necessary in order to keep evolution
reconciled with the ever-challenging and complex discontinuity
of the fossil record.
“Earth,
geologic history of, Time scales – During recent years,
various chronostratigraphic and chronometric time scales with
relatively small differences have been proposed. The 1983
scale prepared for the Decade of North American Geology (DNAG)
takes into account many of the variations of other scales.
As can be seen from the Table, the DNAG geologic time scale
gives the major chronostratigraphic boundaries and their assigned
chronometric ages, as well as the time scale of magnetic polarity
reversals.” – Encyclopaedia Britannica 2004 Deluxe
Edition
“Geologic
Time, I INTRODUCTION – Geologic
Time, time scale that covers the earth's entire geologic history
from its origin to the present. Before the growth of a
geologic time scale in the 19th century natural historians
recognized that the earth has a lengthy history, but
the scale used today developed over the last 200 years and
continues to evolve.” – "Geologic Time,"
Microsoft® Encarta® Encyclopedia 99. © 1993-1998 Microsoft
Corporation. All rights reserved.
“Geology,
III THE GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE – Geologists
have created a geologic time scale to provide a common
vocabulary for talking about past events. The practice of
determining when past geologic events occurred is called geochronology.
This practice began
in the 1700s and has sometimes involved some personal and
international disputes that led to differences in terminology.
Today the geologic time scale is generally
agreed upon and used by scientists around the world, dividing
time into eons, eras, periods, and epochs. Every few years, the numerical time scale is refined based on new evidence,
and geologists publish an update.” – "Geology,"
Microsoft® Encarta® Encyclopedia 99. © 1993-1998 Microsoft
Corporation. All rights reserved.
In
conclusion to this segment, we have seen that the geologic
column simply cannot be perceived as evidence for evolution.
First, it is based upon circular reasoning in which evolution
(in the form of the principle of faunal succession) is itself
a premise in the construction of the geologic column. Since
evolution is a premise in the proof, the proof simply cannot
lead to evolution as a conclusion. Second, the geologic column
is not an actual, physical object or observable reality. It
is a mental picture that results from correlating or integrating
“all of the world’s individual rock sequences.”
However, this integration process requires “clever detective
work” because, as we have seen from secular and evolutionary
sources, the actual fossil evidence is characterized by obstacles
that make constructing a single sequence very complicated
and implausible. And third, the fact that the fossil record
is not an objective reality is demonstrated by the fact that
after 200 years of evolution and adjustment, it continues
to be adjusted and corrected to this day. Conversely, it must
also be stated that the ever-challenging and complex discontinuity
of the fossil record, which exhibits only stable, unchanging
species and is lacking in transitional forms, provides remarkable
positive evidence that organisms do not evolve but exist in
static lineages.
At
this point we have demonstrated the following. First, we have
demonstrated that relative dating itself does not provide
any support for evolution’s long time spans. Second,
we have demonstrated that relative dating, evolution, and
radiometric (absolute) dating are collectively based upon
circular reasoning with each other and, therefore, provide
not support for evolution’s long time spans. And third,
we have demonstrated that the geologic column does not provide
any support for evolution’s long time spans because
it is also based upon circular reasoning with the evolution
and dating methods and because it faces obstacles in the fossil
record itself. With these geologic evidences concerning the
age of the earth now addressed and the astrophysical evidence
for the age of the universe already addressed in prior segments,
the only area where further investigation is needed is the
area of absolute dating methods themselves. For a focus on
absolute dating methods, we move forward to our next segment.